desertion met with sure reward. Their loyalty soon gave way and a competition in treachery began. Tribunes and centurions deserted daily, but not the common soldiers, who had grown stubbornly faithful to Vitellius. At last, however, Priscus and Alfenus168 abandoned the camp and returned to Vitellius, thus finally releasing all the others from any obligation to blush for their treachery. 62About the same time Fabius Valens169 was executed in his prison at Urbinum, and his head was exhibited to Vitellius’ Guards to show them that further hope was vain. For they cherished a belief that Valens had made his way into Germany, and was there mustering his old force and fresh troops as well. This evidence of his death threw them into despair. The Flavian army was vastly inspirited by it and regarded Valens’ death as the end of the war. Valens had been born at Anagnia of an equestrian family. He was a man of loose morality, not without intellectual gifts, who by indulging in frivolity 72posed as a wit. In Nero’s time he had acted in a harlequinade at the Juvenalian Games.170 At first he pleaded compulsion, but afterwards he acted voluntarily, and his performances were rather clever than respectable. Rising to the command of a legion, he supported Verginius171 and then defamed his character. He murdered Fonteius Capito,171 whose loyalty he had undermined-or perhaps because he had failed to do so. He betrayed Galba and remained faithful to Vitellius, a merit to which the treachery of others served as a foil. 63Now that their hopes were crushed on all sides, the Vitellians prepared to go over to the enemy. But even at this crisis they saved their honour by marching down with their standards and colours to the plains below Narnia, where the Flavian army was drawn up in full armour ready for battle in two deep lines on either side of the road. The Vitellians marched in between and were surrounded. Antonius then spoke to them kindly and told them to remain, some at Narnia and some at Interamna. He also left behind some of the victorious legions, which were strong enough to quell any outbreak but would not molest them so long as they remained quiet. 160 See chap. 55. 161 See chap. 56. 162 A distinguished officer, who successfully crushed the rebellion on the Rhine (Book IV), and became governor of Britain in 71. 163 Vespasian’s brother and younger son were both in Rome, the former still holding the office of city prefect (cp. i. 46). 164 Casigliano. 165 From Verona (see chap. 52). 166 Terni. 167 At Narnia. 168 The two prefects of the guard. 169 See chap. 43. 170 Properly a festival to celebrate the first cutting of the beard. Nero forced high officials and their wives to take part in unseemly performances (ii. 62), and the festivities became a public scandal, culminating in Nero’s own appearance as a lyrist. 171 See i. 7, 8. 73 The Abdication of Vitellius and the Burning of the Capitol During these days Antonius and Varus kept sending messages to Vitellius, in which they offered him his life, a gift of money, and the choice of a safe retreat in Campania, if he would stop the war and surrender himself and his children to Vespasian. Mucianus wrote him letters to the same effect. Vitellius usually took these offers seriously and talked about the number of slaves he would have and the choice of a seaside place. He had sunk, indeed, into such mental torpor that, if other people had not remembered that he was an emperor, he was certainly beginning to forget it himself. 64However, it was to Flavius Sabinus, the City Prefect, that the leading men at Rome addressed themselves. They urged him secretly not to lose all share in the glory of victory. They pointed out that the City Garrison was under his own command, and that he could count on the police and their own bands of slaves, to say nothing of the good fortune of the party and all the advantage that victory gives. He must not leave all the glory to Antonius and Varus. Vitellius had nothing left but a few regiments of guards, who were seriously alarmed at the bad news which came from every quarter. As for the populace, their feelings soon changed, and if he put himself at their head, they would be just as loud in their flattery of Vespasian. Vitellius himself could not even cope 74with success, and disaster had positively paralysed him. The credit of ending the war would go to the man who seized the city. It was eminently fitting that Sabinus should secure the throne for his brother, and that Vespasian should hold him higher than any one else. 65Age had enfeebled Sabinus, and he showed no alacrity to listen to such talk as this. Some people covertly insinuated that he was jealous of his brother’s success and was trying to delay its realization. Flavius Sabinus was the elder brother and, while they were both private persons, he had been the richer and more influential. It was also believed that he had been chary in helping Vespasian to recover his financial position, and had taken a mortgage on his house and estates. Consequently, though they remained openly friendly, there were suspicions of a secret enmity between them. The more charitable explanation is that Sabinus’s gentle nature shrank from the idea of bloodshed and massacre, and that this was his reason for so constantly discussing with Vitellius the prospects of peace and a capitulation on terms. After several interviews at his house they finally came to a settlement-so the report went-at the Temple of Apollo.172 To the actual conversation there were only two witnesses, Cluvius Rufus173 and Silius Italicus,174 but the expression of their faces was watched from a distance.75 Vitellius was said to look abject and demoralized:

Sabinus showed less sign of pride than of pity. 66Had Vitellius found it no harder to persuade his friends than to make his own renunciation, Vespasian’s army might have marched into Rome without bloodshed. But as it was, each of his friends in proportion to his loyalty persisted in refusing terms of peace. They pointed to the danger and disgrace. Would their conqueror keep his promises any longer than he liked?

However great Vespasian’s self-confidence, he could not allow Vitellius to live in private. Nor would the losers acquiesce:

their very pity would be a menace.175 ‘Of course,’ they said, ‘you are an old man. You have done with fortune, good or bad. But what sort of repute or position would your son Germanicus176 enjoy?

At present they are promising you money and a household, and the pleasant shores of Campania. But when once Vespasian has seized the throne, neither he nor his friends nor even his army will feel their safety assured until the rival claimant is dead. They imprisoned Fabius Valens and meant to make use of him if a crisis occurred, but they found him too great an incubus. You may be sure that Antonius and Fuscus and that typical representative of the party, Mucianus, will have no choice but to kill you. Julius Caesar did not let Pompey live unmolested, nor Augustus Antony.17776 Do you suppose that Vespasian’s is a loftier disposition?

Why, he was one of your father’s dependants,178 when your father was Claudius’s colleague.179 No, think of your father’s censorship, his three consulships,179 and all the honour your great house has won. You must not disgrace them. Despair, at least, should nerve your courage. The troops are steadfast;

you still enjoy the people’s favour. Indeed, nothing worse can happen to you than what we are eager to face of our own free will. If we are defeated, we must die;

if we surrender, we must die. All that matters is whether we breathe our last amid mockery and insult or bravely and with honour.’ 67But Vitellius was deaf to all courageous counsel. His mind was obsessed with pity for his wife and children, and an anxious fear that obstinate resistance might make the conqueror merciless towards them. He had also a mother,180 very old and infirm, but she had opportunely died a few days before and thus forestalled the ruin of her house. All she had got out of her son’s principate was sorrow and a good name. On December 17 he heard the news that the legion and the Guards at Narnia had deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. He at once put on mourning and left the palace, surrounded by his sorrowful household. His small son was carried in a little litter, as though this had been his funeral. The populace 77uttered untimely flatteries:

the soldiers kept an ominous silence. 68On that day there was no one so indifferent to the tragedy of human life as to be unmoved by this spectacle. A Roman emperor, yesterday master of the inhabited world, had left the seat of his authority, and was now passing through the streets of the city, through the crowding populace, quitting the throne. Such a sight had never been seen or heard of before. The dictator, Caesar, had been the victim of sudden violence;

Caligula of a secret conspiracy. Nero’s had been a stealthy flight to some obscure country house under cover of night. Piso and Galba might almost be said to have fallen on the field of battle. But here was Vitellius-before the assembly of his own people, his own soldiers around him, with women even looking on-uttering a few sentences suitable to his miserable situation. He said it was in the interest of peace and of his country that he now resigned. He begged them only to retain his memory in their hearts and to take pity on his brother, his wife, and his little innocent children. As he said this, he held out his son to them and commended him, now to individuals, now to the whole assembly. At last tears choked his voice. Turning to the consul, Caecilius Simplex,181 who was standing by, he unstrapped his sword and offered to surrender it as a symbol of his power over the life and death of his subjects. The consul refused. The people in the assembly shouted ‘No’. So he left them with the 78intention of depositing the regalia in the Temple of Concord and then going to his brother’s house. But he was faced with a still louder uproar. They refused to let him enter a private house, and shouted to him to return to the palace. They blocked every other way and only left the road leading into the Via Sacra open.182 Not knowing what else to do, Vitellius returned to the palace. 69A rumour of his abdication had preceded him, and Flavius Sabinus had sent written instructions to the Guards’183 officers to keep the men in hand. Thus the whole empire seemed to have fallen into Vespasian’s lap. The chief senators, the majority of the knights, and the whole of the city garrison and the police came flocking to the house of Flavius Sabinus. There they heard the news of the popular enthusiasm for Vitellius and the threatening attitude of the German Guards.184 But Sabinus had gone too far to draw back, and when he showed hesitation, they all began to urge him to fight, each being afraid for his own safety if the Vitellians were to fall on them when they were disunited and consequently weaker. However, as so often happens on these occasions, every one offered to give 79advice but few to share the danger. While Sabinus’ Body Guard were marching down by the Fundane reservoir185 they were attacked by some of the most determined Vitellians. The surprise was unpremeditated, but the Vitellians got the best of an unimportant skirmish. In the panic Sabinus chose what was at the moment the safest course, and occupied the summit of the Capitol,186 where his troops were joined by a few senators and knights. It is not easy to record their names, since after Vespasian’s victory crowds of people claimed credit for this service to the party. There were even some women who endured the siege, the most famous of them being Verulana Gratilla, who had neither children nor relatives to attract her, but only her love of danger.187 The Vitellians, who were investing them, kept a half-hearted watch, and Sabinus was thus enabled to send for his own children and his nephew Domitian at dead of night, dispatching a courier by an unguarded route to tell the Flavian generals that he and his men were under siege, and would be in great straits unless they were rescued. All night, indeed, he was quite unmolested, and could have escaped with perfect safety. The Vitellian troops could face danger with spirit, but were much too careless in the task of keeping guard;

80besides which a sudden storm of chilly rain interfered with their sight and hearing. 70At daybreak, before the two sides commenced hostilities, Sabinus sent Cornelius Martialis, who had been a senior centurion, to Vitellius with instructions to complain that the conditions were being violated;

that he had evidently made a mere empty show of abdication, meant to deceive a number of eminent gentlemen. Else why had he gone from the meeting to his brother’s house, which caught the eye from a conspicuous position overlooking the Forum, and not rather to his wife’s on the Aventine. That was the proper course for a private citizen, anxious to avoid all pretension to supreme authority. But no, Vitellius had returned to the palace, the very stronghold of imperial majesty. From there he had launched a column of armed men, who had strewn with innocent dead the most crowded quarter of Rome, and even laid violent hands upon the Capitol. As for Sabinus himself, the messenger was to say, he was only a civilian, a mere member of the senate. While the issue was being decided between Vespasian and Vitellius by the engagement of legions, the capture of towns, the capitulation of cohorts;

even when the provinces of Spain, of Germany, of Britain, had risen in revolt;

he, though Vespasian’s brother, had still remained faithful to his allegiance, until Vitellius, unasked, began to invite him to a conference. Peace and union, he was to remind him, serve the interest of the losers, and only the reputation of the winners. If Vitellius 81regretted their compact, he ought not to take arms against Sabinus, whom he had treacherously deceived, and against Vespasian’s son, who was still a mere boy. What was the good of killing one youth and one old man?

He ought rather to march out against the legions and fight for the empire on the field. The result of the battle would decide all other questions. Greatly alarmed, Vitellius replied with a few words in which he tried to excuse himself and throw the blame on his soldiers. ‘I am too unassuming,’ he said, ‘to cope with their overpowering impatience.’ He then warned Martialis to make his way out of the house by a secret passage, for fear that the soldiers should kill him as an ambassador of the peace to which they were so hostile. Vitellius himself was not in a position to issue orders or prohibitions;

no longer an emperor, merely an excuse for war. 71Martialis had hardly returned to the Capitol when the furious soldiery arrived. They had no general to lead them:

each was a law to himself. Their column marched at full speed through the Forum and past the temples overlooking it. Then in battle order they advanced up the steep hill in front of them, until they reached the lowest gates of the fortress on the Capitol. In old days there was a series of colonnades at the side of this slope, on the right as you go up. Emerging on to the roof of these, the besieged overwhelmed the Vitellians with showers of stones and tiles. The attacking party carried nothing but swords, and it seemed a long business to send for siege-engines and 82missiles. So they flung torches into the nearest188 colonnade and, following in the wake of the flames, would have burst through the burnt gates of the Capitol, if Sabinus had not torn down all the available statues-the monuments of our ancestors’ glory-and built a sort of barricade on the very threshold. They then tried to attack the Capitol by two opposite approaches, one near the ‘Grove of Refuge’189 and the other by the hundred steps which lead up to the Tarpeian Rock. This double assault came as a surprise. That by the Refuge was the closer and more vigorous. Nothing could stop the Vitellians, who climbed up by some contiguous houses built on to the side of the hill, which in the days of prolonged peace had been raised to such a height that their roofs were level with the floor of the Capitol. It is uncertain whether the buildings at this point were fired by the assailants or-as tradition prefers-by the besieged in trying to dislodge their enemies who had struggled up so far. The fire spread to the colonnades adjoining the temples, and then the ‘eagles’190 supporting the roof, which were made of very old wood, caught the flames and fed them. And so the Capitol, with its doors fast shut, undefended and unplundered, was burnt to the ground. 72Since the foundation of the city no such deplorable and horrible disaster had ever befallen the people of83 Rome. It was no case of foreign invasion. Had our own wickedness allowed, the country might have been enjoying the blessings of a benign Providence;

and yet here was the seat of Jupiter Almighty-the temple solemnly founded by our ancestors as the pledge of their imperial greatness, on which not even Porsenna,191 when Rome surrendered, nor the Gauls, when they took it, had ever dared to lay rash hands-being brought utterly to ruin by the mad folly of two rival emperors!

192 The Capitol had been burnt before in civil war,193 but that was the crime of private persons. Now it had been openly assaulted by the people of Rome and openly burnt by them. And what was the cause of war?

what the recompense for such a disaster?

Were we fighting for our country?

King Tarquinius Priscus had vowed to build this temple in the Sabine war, and had laid the foundations on a scale that suited rather his hope of the city’s future greatness than the still moderate fortunes of the Roman people. Later Servius Tullius, with the aid of Rome’s allies, and Tarquinius Superbus, with the spoils of the Volscians after the capture of Suessa Pometia,194 continued the building. But the glory of completing it was reserved for the days of freedom. After the expulsion of the kings, Horatius Pulvillus, 84in his second consulship195 dedicated this monument on such a magnificent scale, that in later days, with all her boundless wealth, Rome has been able to embellish but never to enlarge it. After an interval of four hundred and fifteen years, in the consulship of Lucius Scipio and Caius Norbanus,196 it was burnt and rebuilt on the same site. Sulla after his victory undertook the task of restoring it, but did not dedicate it. This only was lacking to justify his title of ‘Fortune’s Favourite’.197 Much as the emperors did to it, the name of Lutatius Catulus198 still remained upon it up to the time of Vitellius.199 This was the temple that was now ablaze. 73The besieged suffered more panic than their assailants. The Vitellian soldiers lacked neither resource nor steadiness in moments of crisis. But on the other side the troops were terrified, the general200 inert, and apparently so paralysed that he was practically deaf and dumb. He neither adopted others’ plans nor formed any of his own, but only drifted about from place to place, attracted by the shouts of the enemy, contradicting all his own orders. The result was what always happens in a hopeless disaster:

everybody gave orders and nobody obeyed them. At last they threw away their weapons and began to peer round for 85a way of escape or some means of hiding. Then the Vitellians came bursting in, and with fire and sword made one red havoc. A few good soldiers dared to show fight and were cut to pieces. Of these the most notable were Cornelius Martialis,201 Aemilius Pacensis,202 Casperius Niger, and Didius Scaeva. Flavius Sabinus, who stood unarmed and making no attempt to escape, was surrounded together with the consul Quintius Atticus,203 whose empty title made him a marked man, as well as his personal vanity, which had led him to distribute manifestoes full of compliments to Vespasian and insults against Vitellius. The rest escaped by various means. Some disguised themselves as slaves:

some were sheltered by faithful dependants:

some hid among the baggage. Others again caught the Vitellians’ password, by which they recognized each other, and actually went about demanding it and giving it when challenged, thus escaping under a cloak of effrontery. 74When the enemy first broke in, Domitian had taken refuge with the sacristan, and was enabled by the ingenuity of a freedman to escape among a crowd of worshippers in a linen dress,204 and to take refuge near the Velabrum with Cornelius Primus, one of his father’s dependants. When his father came to the throne, Domitian pulled down the sacristan’s lodging and 86built a little chapel to Jupiter the Saviour with an altar, on which his adventures were depicted in marble relief. Later, when he became emperor, he dedicated a huge temple to Jupiter the Guardian with a statue of himself in the lap of the god. Sabinus and Atticus were loaded with chains and taken to Vitellius, who received them without any language or looks of disfavour, much to the chagrin of those who wanted to see them punished with death and themselves rewarded for their successful labours. When those who stood nearest started an outcry, the dregs of the populace soon began to demand Sabinus’ execution with mingled threats and flatteries. Vitellius came out on to the steps of the palace prepared to plead for him:

but they forced him to desist. Sabinus was stabbed and riddled with wounds:

his head was cut off and the trunk dragged away to the Ladder 75of Sighs.205 Such was the end of a man who certainly merits no contempt. He had served his country for thirty-five years, and won credit both as civilian and soldier. His integrity and fairness were beyond criticism. He talked too much about himself, but this is the one charge which rumour could hint against him in the seven years when he was Governor of Moesia, and the twelve years during which he was Prefect of the City. At the end of his life some thought he showed a lack of enterprise, but many believed him 87a moderate man, who was anxious to save his fellow citizens from bloodshed. In this, at any rate, all would agree, that before Vespasian became emperor the reputation of his house rested on Sabinus. It is said that Mucianus was delighted to hear of his murder, and many people maintained that it served the interests of peace by putting an end to the jealousy of two rivals, one of whom was the emperor’s brother, while the other posed as his partner in the empire.206 When the people further demanded the execution of the consul, Vitellius withstood them. He had forgiven Atticus, and felt that he owed him a favour, for, when asked who had set fire to the Capitol, Atticus had taken the blame on himself, by which avowal-or was it a well-timed falsehood?

-he had fixed all the guilt and odium on himself and exonerated the Vitellian party. 172 On the Palatine. 173 See i. 8. 174 A friend of Vitellius and the author of the historical epic on the second Punic War. 175 This apparently means that, if Vitellius were spared, pity for his position would inspire his supporters to make further trouble. 176 See ii. 59. 177 Two good points, but both untrue. 178 This too is probably hyperbole, but Vespasian may have owed his command in Germany to the influence of Vitellius’ father. 179 See i. 52, note 99. 180 See ii. 64, 89. 181 See ii. 60. 182 i.e. the way back from the Forum to the Palace. 183 Including the city garrison and police. 184 In chap. 78 we find three cohorts of Guards still faithful to Vitellius, and, as it appears from ii. 93, 94 that men from the legions of Germany had been enlisted in the Guards, the term Germanicae cohortes seems to refer to these three cohorts, in which perhaps the majority were men from the German army. 185 Said to be on the Quirinal. 186 Either the whole hill, or, if the expression is exact, the south-west summit. 187 This seems to have led her later into the paths of conspiracy, for she is said to have been banished by Domitian for her friendship with Arulenus Rusticus. 188 Prominentem seems to mean the one that projected towards them. 189 The space lying between the two peaks of the Capitoline. 190 A technical term for the beams of the pediment. 191 ‘Lars Porsenna of Clusium,’ 507 b.c. 192 ‘Burning the Capitol’ was a proverb of utter iniquity. 193 In the war between Sulla and Marius, 83 b.c. 194 The capital town of the Volscians. This early history is told in the first book of Livy. 195 507 b.c. 196 83 b.c. The interval is really 425 years. 197 This, according to Pliny, was Sulla’s own saying. 198 Consul in 69 b.c. He took the title of Capitolinus. 199 On the monument which details his exploits Augustus says that he restored the Capitol at immense cost without inscribing his name on it. 200 Flavius Sabinus. 201 Cp. chap. 70. 202 Cp. i. 20, 87;

ii. 12. 203 Consul for November and December. His colleague, Caecilius Simplex, was on the other side (see chap. 68). 204 The dress of the worshippers of the Egyptian goddess Isis, who considered woollen clothes unclean. 205 A flight of steps leading down from the Capitol to the Forum. On them the bodies of criminals were exposed after execution. 206 Mucianus. The Taking of Tarracina 76About this same time Lucius Vitellius,207 who had pitched his camp at the Temple of Feronia,208 made every effort to destroy Tarracina, where he had shut up the gladiators and sailors, who would not venture to leave the shelter of the walls or to face death in the open. The gladiators were commanded, as we have already seen,209 by Julianus, and the sailors by88 Apollinaris, men whose dissolute inefficiency better suited gladiators than general officers. They set no watch, and made no attempt to repair the weak places in the walls. Day and night they idled loosely;

the soldiers were dispatched in all directions to find them luxuries;

that beautiful coast rang with their revelry;

and they only spoke of war in their cups. A few days earlier, Apinius Tiro210 had started on his mission, and, by rigorously requisitioning gifts of money in all the country towns, was winning more unpopularity than assistance for the cause. 77In the meantime, one of Vergilius Capito’s slaves deserted to Lucius Vitellius, and promised that, if he were provided with men, he would put the abandoned castle into their hands. Accordingly, at dead of night he established a few lightly armed cohorts on the top of the hills which overlooked the enemy. Thence the soldiers came charging down more to butchery than battle. They cut down their victims standing helpless and unarmed or hunting for their weapons, or perhaps newly startled from their sleep-all in a bewildering confusion of darkness, panic, bugle-calls, and savage cries. A few of the gladiators resisted and sold their lives dearly. The rest rushed to the ships;

and there the same panic and confusion reigned, for the villagers were all mixed up with the troops, and the Vitellians slaughtered them too, without distinction. Just as the 89first uproar began, six Liburnian cruisers slipped away with the admiral Apollinaris on board. The rest were either captured on the beach or overweighted and sunk by the crowds that clambered over them. Julianus was taken to Lucius Vitellius, who had him flogged till he bled and then killed before his eyes. Some writers have accused Lucius Vitellius’ wife, Triaria,211 of putting on a soldier’s sword, and with insolent cruelty showing herself among the horrors of the captured town. Lucius himself sent a laurel-wreath to his brother in token of his success, and inquired whether he wished him to return at once or to continue reducing Campania. This delay saved not only Vespasian’s party but Rome as well. Had he marched on the city while his men were fresh from their victory, with the flush of success added to their natural intrepidity, there would have been a tremendous struggle, which must have involved the city’s destruction. Lucius Vitellius, too, for all his evil repute, was a man of action. Good men owe their power to their virtues;

but he was one of that worst sort whose vices are their only virtue. 207 See chap. 58. 208 An Italian goddess of freedom. The temple is mentioned in Horace’s Journey to Brundisium, where Anxur = Tarracina, which was three miles from the temple. 209 Chap. 57. 210 He was in command of the rebels from the fleet at Misenum, and engaged in bringing over the country-towns (see chap. 57). 211 Cp. chaps. 63 and 64. The Sack of Rome and the end of Vitellius 78While things212 went thus on Vitellius’ side, the Flavian army after leaving Narnia spent the days of 90the Saturnalian holiday213 quietly at Ocriculum.214 The object of this disastrous delay was to wait for Mucianus. Antonius has been suspected of delaying treacherously after receiving a secret communication from Vitellius, offering him as the price of treason the consulship, his young daughter, and a rich dowry. Others hold that this story was invented to gratify Mucianus. Many consider that the policy of all the Flavian generals was rather to threaten the city than to attack it. They realized that Vitellius had lost the best cohorts of his Guards, and now that all his forces were cut off they expected he would abdicate. But this prospect was spoilt first by Sabinus’ precipitation and then by his cowardice, for, after very rashly taking arms, he failed to defend against three cohorts of Guards the strongly fortified castle on the Capitol, which ought to have been impregnable even to a large army. However, it is not easy to assign to any one man the blame which they all share. Even Mucianus helped to delay the victors’ advance by the ambiguity of his dispatches, and Antonius was also to blame for his untimely compliance with instructions-or else for trying to throw the responsibility215 on Mucianus. The other generals thought the war was over, and thus rendered its final scene all the more appalling. Petilius Cerialis was sent forward with a thousand cavalry to 91make his way by cross-roads through the Sabine country, and enter the city by the Salarian road.216 But even he failed to make sufficient haste, and at last the news of the siege of the Capitol brought them all at once to their senses. 79Marching up the Flaminian road, it was already deep night when Antonius reached ‘The Red Rocks’.217 His help had come too late. There he heard that Sabinus had been killed, and the Capitol burnt;

the city was in panic;

everything looked black;

even the populace and the slaves were arming for Vitellius. Petilius Cerialis, too, had been defeated in a cavalry engagement. He had pushed on without caution, thinking the enemy already beaten, and the Vitellians with a mixed force of horse and foot had caught him unawares. The engagement had taken place near the city among farm buildings and gardens and winding lanes, with which the Vitellians were familiar, while the Flavians were terrified by their ignorance. Besides, the troopers were not all of one mind;

some of them belonged to the force which had recently surrendered at Narnia, and were waiting to see which side won. Julius Flavianus, who commanded a regiment of cavalry, was taken prisoner. The rest fell into a disgraceful panic and fled, but the pursuit was not continued beyond Fidenae. 80This success served to increase the popular excitement. The city rabble now took arms. A few had service-shields:

most of them snatched up any weapons 92they could find and clamoured to be given the sign for battle. Vitellius expressed his gratitude to them and bade them sally forth to protect the city. He then summoned a meeting of the senate, at which envoys were appointed to go to the two armies and urge them in the name of public welfare to accept peace. The fortunes of the envoys varied. Those who approached Petilius Cerialis found themselves in dire danger, for the soldiers indignantly refused their terms. The praetor, Arulenus Rusticus,218 was wounded. Apart from the wrong done to a praetor and an envoy, the man’s own acknowledged worth made this seem all the more scandalous. His companions were flogged, and the lictor nearest to him was killed for venturing to make a way through the crowd. Indeed, if the guard provided by the general had not intervened, a Roman envoy, the sanctity of whose person even foreign nations respect, might have been wickedly murdered in the mad rage of civil strife under the very walls of Rome. Those who went to Antonius met with a more reasonable reception;

not that the soldiers were less violent, but the general had more authority. 81A knight named Musonius Rufus had attached himself to the envoys. He was a student of philosophy and an enthusiastic advocate of Stoicism. He mingled with the armed soldiers offering them advice and discoursing on the advantages of peace and the perils of war. This amused many of them and bored still 93more. Some, indeed, wanted to maul him and kick him out, but the advice of the more sober spirits and the threats of others persuaded him to cut short his ill-timed lecture. The Vestal Virgins, too, came in procession to bring Antonius a letter from Vitellius, in which he demanded one day’s postponement of the final crisis, saying that everything could easily be settled, if only they would grant this respite. Antonius sent the Virgins away with all respect, and wrote in answer to Vitellius that the murder of Sabinus and the burning of the Capitol had broken off all negotiations. 82However, he summoned the legions to a meeting and endeavoured to mollify them, proposing that they should pitch their camp near the Mulvian Bridge and enter the city on the following day. His motive for delay was a fear that the troops, when once their blood was up after a skirmish, would have no respect for civilians or senators, or even for the temples and shrines of the gods. But they suspected every postponement as a hindrance to their victory. Moreover, some colours which were seen glittering along the hills, gave the impression of a hostile force, although none but peaceful citizens accompanied them. The attack was made in three columns. One advanced from its original position on the Flaminian road, one kept near the bank of the Tiber, and the third approached the Colline Gate along the Salarian road. The cavalry rode into the mob and scattered them. But the Vitellian troops faced the enemy, themselves, too, in three separate divisions. Again 94and again they engaged before the walls with varying success. But the Flavians had the advantage of being well led and thus more often won success. Only one of the attacking parties suffered at all severely, that which had made its way along narrow, greasy lanes to Sallust’s Gardens219 on the left side of the city. Standing on the garden walls, the Vitellians hurled stones and javelins down upon them and held them back until late in the day. But at last the cavalry forced an entrance by the Colline Gate and took the defenders in the rear. Then the opposing forces met on the Martian Plain itself. Fortune favoured the Flavians and the sense of victories won. The Vitellians charged in sheer despair, but, though driven back, they gathered again in the city. 83The people came and watched the fighting, cheering and applauding now one side, now the other, like spectators at a gladiatorial contest. Whenever one side gave ground, and the soldiers began to hide in shops or seek refuge in some private house, they clamoured for them to be dragged out and killed, and thus got the greater part of the plunder for themselves:

for while the soldiers were busy with the bloody work of massacre, the spoil fell to the crowd. The scene throughout the city was hideous and terrible:

on the one side fighting and wounded men, on the other baths and restaurants:

here lay heaps of bleeding dead, and close at hand were harlots and their companions-all the vice and licence of luxurious peace, 95and all the crime and horror of a captured town. One might well have thought the city mad with fury and mad with pleasure at the same time. Armies had fought in the city before this, twice when Sulla mastered Rome,220 once under Cinna.221 Nor were there less horrors then. What was now so inhuman was the people’s indifference. Not for one minute did they interrupt the life of pleasure. The fighting was a new amusement for their holiday.222 Caring nothing for either party, they enjoyed themselves in riotous dissipation and took a frank pleasure in their country’s disaster. 84The storming of the Guards’ camp was the most troublesome task. It was still held by some of the bravest as a forlorn hope, which made the victors all the more eager to take it, especially those who had originally served in the Guards. They employed against it every means ever devised for the storming of the most strongly fortified towns, a ‘tortoise’,223 artillery, earthworks, firebrands. This, they cried, was the crown of all the toil and danger they had undergone in all their battles. They had restored the city to the senate and people of Rome, and their Temples to the gods:

the soldier’s pride is his camp, it is his country and his home. If they could not regain it at once, they must spend the night in fighting. The Vitellians, for their part, had numbers and fortune against them, but by marring their enemy’s victory, by postponing 96peace, by fouling houses and altars with their blood, they embraced the last consolations that the conquered can enjoy. Many lay more dead than alive on the towers and ramparts of the walls and there expired. When the gates were torn down, the remainder faced the conquerors in a body. And there they fell, every man of them facing the enemy with all his wounds in front. Even as they died they took care to make an honourable end. When the city was taken, Vitellius left the Palace by a back way and was carried in a litter to his wife’s house on the Aventine. If he could lie hid during the day, he hoped to make his escape to his brother and the Guards at Tarracina. But it is in the very nature of terror that, while any course looks dangerous, the present state of things seems worst of all. His fickle determination soon changed and he returned to the vast, deserted Palace, whence even the lowest of his menials had fled, or at least avoided meeting him. Shuddering at the solitude and hushed silence of the place, he wandered about, trying closed doors, terrified to find the rooms empty;

until at last, wearied with his miserable search, he crept into some shameful hiding-place. There Julius Placidus, an officer of the Guards, found him and dragged him out. His hands were tied behind his back, his clothes were torn, and thus he was led forth-a loathly spectacle at which many hurled insults and no one shed a single tear of pity. The ignominy of his end killed all compassion. On the way a soldier of the German army either 97aimed an angry blow at him, or tried to put him out of his shame, or meant, perhaps, to strike the officer in command;

at any rate, he cut off the officer’s ear and was immediately stabbed. 85With the points of their swords they made Vitellius hold up his head and face their insults, forcing him again and again to watch his own statues hurtling down, or to look at the Rostra and the spot where Galba had been killed. At last he was dragged along to the Ladder of Sighs,224 where the body of Flavius Sabinus had lain. One saying of his which was recorded had a ring of true nobility. When some officer flung reproaches at him, he answered, ‘And yet I was once your emperor.’ After that he fell under a shower of wounds, and when he was dead the mob abused him as loudly as they had flattered him in his lifetime-and with as little reason. 86Vitellius’ home was at Luceria.225 He was in his fifty-seventh year, and had won the consulship, priesthoods, and a name and position among Rome’s greatest men, all of which he owed to no efforts of his own, but solely to his father’s eminence.226 Those who offered him the throne had not yet learnt to know him;

and yet his slothful cowardice won from his soldiers an enthusiasm which the best of generals have rarely evoked. Still he had the qualities of candour and generosity, which without moderation are 98liable to prove disastrous. He had few friends, though he bought many, thinking to keep them, not by showing moral stamina, but by giving liberal presents. It was indubitably good for the country that Vitellius should be beaten. But those who betrayed him to Vespasian can hardly make a merit of their perfidy, for they were the very men who had deserted Galba for Vitellius. The day was already sinking into evening. The magistrates and senators had fled in terror from the city, or were still in hiding at dependants’ houses:

it was therefore impossible to call a meeting of the senate. When all fear of violence was at an end, Domitian came out227 and presented himself to the generals of his party. The crowds of soldiers at once hailed him as Caesar, and marched off, still in full armour, to escort him to his father’s house. 212 The narrative is continued from chap. 63. 213 December 17-23. 214 Otricoli. 215 i.e. for the delay which gave time for the burning of the Capitol. The fact that he tried to shift the responsibility seemed to argue an uncomfortable conscience. 216 i.e. through the Colline Gate. 217 Grotta Rosa. 218 A well-known member of the Stoic opposition, executed by Domitian’s order, a.d. 94. 219 The historian. They now belonged to the emperor. 220 88 and 82 b.c. 221 87 b.c. 222 The Saturnalia. 223 See chap. 27, note 77. 224 Cp. note 205. 225 The words are uncertain. There is probably a lacuna. 226 Cp. vol. i, note 99. 227 He had taken refuge with a humble friend (see chap. 74). 99 BOOK IV Rome after the Fall of Vitellius (January-July, a.d. 70) 1The death of Vitellius ended the war without inaugurating peace. The victors remained under arms, and the defeated Vitellians were hunted through the city with implacable hatred, and butchered promiscuously wherever they were found. The streets were choked with corpses;

squares and temples ran with blood. Soon the riot knew no restraint;

they began to hunt for those who were in hiding and to drag them out. All who were tall and of youthful appearance, whether soldiers or civilians, were cut down indiscriminately.228 While their rage was fresh they sated their savage cravings with blood;

then suddenly the instinct of greed prevailed. On the pretext of hunting for hidden enemies, they would leave no door unopened and regard no privacy. Thus they began to rifle private houses or else made resistance an excuse for murder. There were plenty of needy citizens, too, and of rascally slaves, who were perfectly ready to betray wealthy householders:

others were indicated by their friends. From all sides came cries of mourning 100and misery. Rome was like a captured city. People even longed to have the insolent soldiery of Otho and Vitellius back again, much as they had been hated. The Flavian generals, who had fanned the flame of civil war with such energy, were incapable of using their victory temperately. In riot and disorder the worst characters take the lead;

peace and quiet call for the highest qualities. 2Domitian having secured the title and the official residence of a Caesar,229 did not as yet busy himself with serious matters, but in his character of emperor’s son devoted himself to dissolute intrigues. Arrius Varus230 took command of the Guards, but the supreme authority rested with Antonius Primus. He removed money and slaves from the emperor’s house as though he were plundering Cremona. The other generals, from excess of modesty or lack of spirit, shared neither the distinctions of the war nor the profits of peace. People in Rome were now so nervous and so resigned to despotism that they demanded that Lucius Vitellius and his force of Guards should be surprised on their way back from Tarracina,231 and the last sparks of the war stamped out. Some cavalry were sent forward to Aricia, while the column of the legions halted short of Bovillae.232 Vitellius, however, lost no time in surrendering himself and his Guards to the conqueror’s 101discretion, and the men flung away their unlucky swords more in anger than in fear. The long line of prisoners filed through the city between ranks of armed guards. None looked like begging for mercy. With sad, set faces they remained sternly indifferent to the applause or the mockery of the ribald crowd. A few tried to break away, but were surrounded and overpowered. The rest were put in prison. Not one of them gave vent to any unseemly complaint. Through all their misfortunes they preserved their reputation for courage. Lucius Vitellius was then executed. He was as weak as his brother, though during the principate he showed himself less indolent. Without sharing his brother’s success, he was carried away on the flood of his disaster. 3At this time Lucilius Bassus233 was sent off with a force of light horse to quell the disquiet in Campania, which was caused more by the mutual jealousy of the townships than by any opposition to the emperor. The sight of the soldiers restored order. The smaller colonies were pardoned, but at Capua the Third legion234 was left in winter quarters and some of the leading families fined.235 Tarracina, on the other hand, received no relief. It is always easier to requite an injury than a service:

gratitude is a burden, but revenge is found to pay. Their only consolation was that one of Vergilius Capito’s slaves, who had, as we 102have seen,236 betrayed the town, was hanged on the gallows with the very rings237 on his fingers which Vitellius had given him to wear. At Rome the senate decreed to Vespasian all the usual prerogatives of the principate.238 They were now happy and confident. Seeing that the civil war had broken out in the provinces of Gaul and Spain, and after causing a rebellion first in Germany and then in Illyricum, had spread to Egypt, Judaea, Syria,239 and in fact to all the provinces and armies of the empire, they felt that the world had been purged as by fire and that all was now over. Their satisfaction was still further enhanced by a letter from Vespasian, which at first sight seemed to be phrased as if the war was still going on. Still his tone was that of an emperor, though he spoke of himself as a simple citizen and gave his country all the glory. The senate for its part showed no lack of deference. They decreed that Vespasian himself should be consul with Titus for his colleague, and on Domitian they conferred the praetorship with the powers of a consul.240 4Mucianus had also addressed a letter to the senate 103which gave rise to a good deal of talk.241 If he were a private citizen, why adopt the official tone?

He could have expressed the same opinions a few days later from his place in the House. Besides, his attack on Vitellius came too late to prove his independence, and what seemed particularly humiliating for the country and insulting to the emperor was his boast that he had held the empire in the hollow of his hand, and had given it to Vespasian. However, they concealed their ill-will and made a great show of flattery, decreeing to Mucianus in the most complimentary terms full triumphal honours, which were really given him for his success against his fellow countrymen, though they trumped up an expedition to Sarmatia as a pretext.242 On Antonius Primus they conferred the insignia of the consulship, and those of the praetorship on Cornelius Fuscus and Arrius Varus. Then came the turn of the gods:

it was decided to restore the Capitol. These proposals were all moved by the consul-designate, Valerius Asiaticus.243 The others signified assent by smiling and holding up their hands, though a few, who were particularly distinguished, or especially practised in the art of flattery, delivered set speeches. When it came to the turn of Helvidius Priscus, the praetor-designate, he expressed himself in terms which, while doing honour to a good emperor, were perfectly frank 104and honest.244 The senate showed their keen approval, and it was this day which first won for him great disfavour and great distinction. 5Since I have had occasion to make a second allusion245 to a man whom I shall often have to mention again,246 it may be well to give here a brief account of his character and ideals, and of his fortune in life. Helvidius Priscus came from the country town of Cluviae.247 His father had been a senior centurion in the army. From his early youth Helvidius devoted his great intellectual powers to the higher studies, not as many people do, with the idea of using a philosopher’s reputation as a cloak for indolence,248 but rather to fortify himself against the caprice of fortune when he entered public life. He became a follower of that school of philosophy249 which holds that honesty is the one good thing in life and sin the only evil, while power and rank and other such external things, not being qualities of character, are neither good nor bad. He had risen no higher than the rank of quaestor when Paetus Thrasea chose him for his son-in-law,250 and of Thrasea’s virtues he absorbed none so much as his independence. As citizen, senator, husband, son-in-law, friend, in every sphere of life he was thoroughly consistent, always showing contempt 105for money, stubborn persistence in the right, and courage in the face of danger. 6Some people thought him too ambitious, for even with philosophers the passion for fame is often their last rag of infirmity. After Thrasea’s fall Helvidius was banished, but he returned to Rome under Galba and proceeded to prosecute Eprius Marcellus,251 who had informed against his father-in-law. This attempt to secure a revenge, as bold as it was just, divided the senate into two parties, for the fall of Marcellus would involve the ruin of a whole army of similar offenders. At first the struggle was full of recrimination, as the famous speeches on either side testify;

but after a while, finding that Galba’s attitude was doubtful and that many of the senators begged him to desist, Helvidius dropped the prosecution. On his action in this matter men’s comments varied with their character, some praising his moderation, others asking what had become of his tenacity. To return to the senate:

at the same meeting at which they voted powers to Vespasian they also decided to send a deputation to address him. This gave rise to a sharp dispute between Helvidius Priscus and Eprius Marcellus. The former thought the members of the deputation ought to be nominated by magistrates acting under oath;

Marcellus demanded their selection by lot. The consul-designate had already spoken in 7favour of the latter method, but Marcellus’ motive was personal vanity, for he was afraid that if others 106were chosen he would seem slighted. Their exchange of views gradually grew into a formal and acrimonious debate. Helvidius inquired why it was that Marcellus was so afraid of the magistrates’ judgement, seeing that he himself had great advantages of wealth and of eloquence over many others. Could it be the memory of his misdeeds that so oppressed him?

The fall of the lot could not discern character:

but the whole point of submitting people to the vote and to scrutiny by the senate was to get at the truth about each man’s life and reputation. In the interest of the country, and out of respect to Vespasian, it was important that he should be met by men whom the senate considered beyond reproach, men who would give the emperor a taste for honest language. Vespasian had been a friend of Thrasea, Soranus, and Sentius,252 and even though there might be no need to punish their prosecutors, still it would be wrong to put them forward. Moreover, the senate’s selection would be a sort of hint to the emperor whom to approve and whom to avoid. ‘Good friends are the most effective instruments of good government. Marcellus ought to be content with having driven Nero to destroy so many innocent people. Let him enjoy the impunity and the profit he has won from that, and leave Vespasian to more honest advisers.’ 1078Marcellus replied that the opinion which was being impugned was not his own. The consul-designate had already advised them to follow the established precedent, which was that deputations should be chosen by lot, so that there should be no room for intrigue or personal animosity. Nothing had happened to justify them in setting aside such an ancient system. Why turn a compliment to the emperor into a slight upon some one else?

Anybody could do homage. What they had to avoid was the possibility that some people’s obstinacy might irritate the emperor at the outset of his reign, while his intentions were undecided and he was still busy watching faces and listening to what was said. ‘I have not forgotten,’ he went on, ‘the days of my youth or the constitution which our fathers and grandfathers established.253 But while admiring a distant past, I support the existing state of things. I pray for good emperors, but I take them as they come. As for Thrasea, it was not my speech but the senate’s verdict which did for him. Nero took a savage delight in farces like that trial, and, really, the friendship of such an emperor cost me as much anxiety as banishment did to others. In fine, Helvidius may be as brave and as firm as any Brutus or Cato;

I am but a senator and we are all slaves together. Besides, I advise my friend not to try and get an upper hand with our emperor or to force his tuition on a man of ripe years,254 who wears the insignia of a triumph and is the father 108of two grown sons. Bad rulers like absolute sovereignty, and even the best of them must set some limit to their subjects’ independence.’ This heated interchange of arguments found supporters for both views. The party which wanted the deputies chosen by lot eventually prevailed, since even the moderates were anxious to observe the precedent, and all the most prominent members tended to vote with them, for fear of encountering ill-feeling if they were selected. 9This dispute was followed by another. The Praetors, who in those days administered the Treasury,255 complained of the spread of poverty in the country and demanded some restriction of expenditure. The consul-designate said that, as the undertaking would be so vast and the remedy so difficult, he was in favour of leaving it for the emperor. Helvidius maintained that it ought to be settled by the senate’s decision. When the consuls began to take each senator’s opinion, Vulcacius Tertullinus, one of the tribunes, interposed his veto, on the ground that they could not decide such an important question in the emperor’s absence. Helvidius had previously moved that the Capitol should be restored at the public cost, and with the assistance of Vespasian. The moderates all passed over this suggestion in silence and soon 109forgot it, but there were others who took care to remember it.256 10It was at this time that Musonius Rufus257 brought an action against Publius Celer on the ground that it was only by perjury that he had secured the conviction of Soranus Barea.258 It was felt that this trial restarted the hue and cry against professional accusers. But the defendant was a rascal of no importance who could not be sheltered, and, moreover, Barea’s memory was sacred. Celer had set up as a teacher of philosophy and then committed perjury against his pupil Barea, thus treacherously violating the very principles of friendship which he professed to teach. The case was put down for the next day’s meeting.259 But now that a taste for revenge was aroused, people were all agog to see not so much Musonius and Publius as Priscus and Marcellus and the rest in court. 11Thus the senate quarrelled;

the defeated party nursed their grievances;

the winners had no power to enforce their will;

law was in abeyance and the emperor absent. This state of things continued until Mucianus arrived in Rome and took everything into his own hands. This shattered the supremacy of Antonius and Varus, for, though Mucianus tried to show a friendly face towards them, he was not very 110successful in concealing his dislike. But the people of Rome, having acquired great skill in detecting strained relations, had already transferred their allegiance. Mucianus was now the sole object of their flattering attentions. And he lived up to them. He surrounded himself with an armed escort, and kept changing his house and gardens. His display, his public appearances, the night-watch that guarded him, all showed that he had adopted the style of an emperor while forgoing the title. The greatest alarm was aroused by his execution of Calpurnius Galerianus, a son of Caius Piso.260 He had attempted no treachery, but his distinguished name and handsome presence had made the youth a subject of common talk, and the country was full of turbulent spirits who delighted in revolutionary rumours and idly talked of his coming to the throne. Mucianus gave orders that he should be arrested by a body of soldiers, and to avoid a conspicuous execution in the heart of the city, they marched him forty miles along the Appian road, where they severed his veins and let him bleed to death. Julius Priscus, who had commanded the Guards under Vitellius, committed suicide, more from shame than of necessity. Alfenus Varus survived the disgrace of his cowardice.261 Asiaticus,262 who was a freedman, paid for his malign influence by dying the death of a slave.263 228 Because they were taken for members of Vitellius’ German auxiliary cohorts. 229 Cp. iii. 86 sub fin. 230 Cp. iii. 6. 231 See iii. 76. 232 These three towns are all on the Appian Way, Bovillae ten miles from Rome, Aricia sixteen, Tarracina fifty-nine, on the coast. 233 Cp. iii. 12. 234 Gallica. 235 Capua had adhered to Vitellius. Tarracina had been held for Vespasian (cp. iii. 57). 236 See iii. 77. 237 The insignia of equestrian rank (cp. i. 13). 238 The chief of these were the powers of tribune, pro-consul, and censor, and the title of Augustus (cp. i. 47, ii. 55). 239 Vindex had risen in Gaul;

Galba in Spain;

Vitellius in Germany;

Antonius Primus in the Danube provinces (Illyricum);

Vespasian and Mucianus in Judaea, Syria, and Egypt. 240 This was necessary in the absence of Vespasian and Titus. 241 See vol. i, note 339. 242 A triumph could, of course, be held only for victories over a foreign enemy. Here the pretext was the repulse of the Dacians (iii. 46). 243 Vitellius’ son-in-law (cp. i. 59). 244 In the text some words seem to be missing here, but the general sense is clear. 245 Cp. ii. 91. 246 If Tacitus ever told the story of his banishment and death, his version has been lost with the rest of his history of Vespasian’s reign. 247 In Samnium. 248 i.e. shirking the duties of public life. 249 i.e. the Stoic. 250 See ii. 91. 251 Cp. ii. 53. 252 Soranus, like Thrasea, was a Stoic who opposed the government mainly on moral grounds. The story of their end is told in the Annals, Book XVI. Sentius was presumably another member of their party. 253 He refers to Augustus’ regularization of the principate. 254 Fifty-nine. 255 The administration of this office was changed several times in the first century of the empire. Here we have a reversion to Augustus’ second plan. Trajan restored Augustus’ original plan-also adopted by Nero-of appointing special Treasury officials from the ex-praetors. 256 His offence lay in assigning to the emperor a merely secondary position. 257 His ill-timed advocacy of Stoicism is mentioned iii. 81. 258 Described in the Annals, xvi. 32. 259 The description of this is postponed to chap. 40. Celer was convicted. 260 C. Piso had conspired against Nero, a.d. 65. 261 They had both abandoned their camp at Narnia (cp. iii. 61). 262 Cp. ii. 57. 263 i.e. he was crucified. 111 The Revolt of Civilis and the Batavi 12The growing rumour of a reverse in Germany264 had not as yet caused any alarm in Rome. People alluded to the loss of armies, the capture of the legions’ winter quarters, the defection of the Gallic provinces as matters of indifference. I must now go back and explain the origin of this war, and of the widespread rebellion of foreign and allied tribes which now broke into flame. The Batavi were once a tribe of the Chatti,265 living on the further bank of the Rhine. But an outbreak of civil war had driven them across the river, where they settled in a still unoccupied district on the frontier of Gaul and also in the neighbouring island, enclosed on one side by the ocean and on the other three sides by the Rhine.266 There they fared better than most tribes who ally themselves to a stronger power. Their resources are still intact, and they have only to contribute men and arms for the imperial army.267 After 112a long training in the German wars, they still further increased their reputation in Britain, where their troops had been sent, commanded according to an ancient custom by some of the noblest chiefs. There still remained behind in their own country a picked troop of horsemen with a peculiar knack of swimming, which enabled them to make a practice268 of crossing the Rhine with unbroken ranks without losing control of their horses or their weapons. 13Of their chieftains two outshone the rest. These were Julius Paulus and Julius Civilis, both of royal stock. Paulus had been executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion.269 On the same occasion Civilis was sent in chains to Nero. Galba, however, set him free, and under Vitellius he again ran great risk of his life, when the army clamoured for his execution.270 This gave him a motive for hating Rome, and our misfortunes fed his hopes. He was, indeed, far cleverer than most barbarians, and professed to be a second Sertorius or Hannibal, because they all three had the same physical defect.271 He was afraid that if he openly rebelled against the Roman people they would treat him as an enemy, and march on him at once, so he pretended to be a keen supporter of Vespasian’s party. This much was true, that Antonius113 Primus had written instructing him to divert the auxiliaries whom Vitellius had summoned, and to delay the legions on the pretence of a rising in Germany. Moreover, Hordeonius Flaccus272 had given him the same advice in person, for Flaccus was inclined to support Vespasian and anxious for the safety of Rome, which was threatened with utter disaster, if the war were to break out afresh and all these thousands of troops come pouring into Italy. 14Having thus made up his mind to rebel, Civilis concealed in the meantime his ulterior design, and while intending to guide his ultimate policy by future events, proceeded to initiate the rising as follows. The young Batavians were by Vitellius’ orders being pressed for service, and this burden was being rendered even more irksome than it need have been by the greed and depravity of the recruiting officers. They took to enrolling elderly men and invalids so as to get bribes for excusing them:

or, as most of the Batavi are tall and good-looking in their youth, they would seize the handsomest boys for immoral purposes. This caused bad feeling;

an agitation was organized, and they were persuaded to refuse service. Accordingly, on the pretext of giving a banquet, Civilis summoned the chief nobles and the most determined of the tribesmen to a sacred grove. Then, when he saw them excited by their revelry and the late hour of the night, he began to speak of the glorious past of the Batavi and to enumerate the wrongs they had suffered, the injustice 114and extortion and all the evils of their slavery. ‘We are no longer treated,’ he said, ‘as we used to be, like allies, but like menials and slaves. Why, we are never even visited by an imperial Governor273-irksome though the insolence of his staff would be. We are given over to prefects and centurions;

and when these subordinates have had their fill of extortion and of bloodshed, they promptly find some one to replace them, and then there are new pockets to fill and new pretexts for plunder. Now conscription is upon us:

children are to be torn from parents, brother from brother, never, probably, to meet again. And yet the fortunes of Rome were never more depressed. Their cantonments contain nothing but loot and a lot of old men. Lift up your eyes and look at them. There is nothing to fear from legions that only exist on paper.274 And we are strong. We have infantry and cavalry:

the Germans are our kinsmen:

the Gauls share our ambition. Even the Romans will be grateful if we go to war.275 If we fail, we can claim credit for supporting Vespasian:

if we succeed, there will be no one to call us to account.’ 15His speech was received with great approval, and he at once bound them all to union, using the barbarous ceremonies and strange oaths of his country. They 115then sent to the Canninefates to join their enterprise. This tribe inhabits part of the Island,276 and though inferior in numbers to the Batavi, they are of the same race and language and the same courageous spirit. Civilis next sent secret messages to win over the Batavian troops, which after serving as Roman auxiliaries in Britain had been sent, as we have already seen,277 to Germany and were now stationed at Mainz.278 One of the Canninefates, Brinno by name, was a man of distinguished family and stubborn courage. His father had often ventured acts of hostility, and had with complete impunity shown his contempt for Caligula’s farcical expedition.279 To belong to such a family of rebels was in itself a recommendation. He was accordingly placed on a shield, swung up on the shoulders of his friends, and thus elected leader after the fashion of the tribe. Summoning to his aid the Frisii280-a tribe from beyond the Rhine-he fell upon two cohorts of auxiliaries whose camp lay close to the neighbouring shore.281 The attack was unexpected, and the troops, even if they had foreseen it, were not strong enough to offer resistance:

so the camp was taken and looted. They then fell on the Roman camp-116followers and traders, who had gone off in all directions as if peace were assured. Finding the forts now threatened with destruction, the Roman officers set fire to them, as they had no means of defence. All the troops with their standards and colours retired in a body to the upper end of the island, led by Aquilius, a senior centurion. But they were an army in name only, not in strength, for Vitellius had withdrawn all the efficient soldiers and had replaced them by a useless mob, who had been drawn from the neighbouring Nervian and German villages and were only embarrassed by their armour.282 16Civilis thought it best to proceed by guile, and actually ventured to blame the Roman officers for abandoning the forts. He could, he told them, with the cohort under his command, suppress the outbreak of the Canninefates without their assistance:

they could all go back to their winter-quarters. However, it was plain that some treachery underlay his advice-it would be easier to crush the cohorts if they were separated-and also that Civilis, not Brinno, was at the head of this war. Evidence of this gradually leaked out, as the Germans loved war too well to keep 117the secret for long. Finding his artifice unsuccessful, Civilis tried force instead, forming the Canninefates, Frisii and Batavi into three separate columns.283 The Roman line faced them in position near the Rhine bank.284 They had brought their ships there after the burning of the forts, and these were now turned with their prows towards the enemy. Soon after the engagement began a Tungrian cohort deserted to Civilis, and the Romans were so startled by this unexpected treachery that they were cut to pieces by their allies and their enemies combined. Similar treachery occurred in the fleet. Some of the rowers, who were Batavians, feigning clumsiness tried to impede the sailors and marines in the performance of their functions, and after a while openly resisted them and turned the ships’ sterns towards the enemy’s bank. Finally, they killed the pilots and centurions who refused to join them, and thus all the twenty-four ships of the flotilla either deserted to the enemy or were captured by them. 17This victory made Civilis immediately famous and proved subsequently very useful. Having now got the ships and the weapons which they needed, he and his 118followers were enthusiastically proclaimed as champions of liberty throughout Germany and Gaul. The German provinces immediately sent envoys with offers of help, while Civilis endeavoured by diplomacy and by bribery to secure an alliance with the Gauls. He sent back the auxiliary officers whom he had taken prisoner, each to his own tribe, and offered the cohorts the choice of either going home or remaining with him. Those who remained were given an honourable position in his army:

and those who went home received presents out of the Roman spoil. At the same time Civilis talked to them confidentially and reminded them of the miseries they had endured for all these years, in which they had disguised their wretched slavery under the name of peace. ‘The Batavi,’ he would say, ‘were excused from taxation, and yet they have taken arms against the common tyrant. In the first engagement the Romans were routed and beaten. What if Gaul throws off the yoke?

What forces are there left in Italy?

It is with the blood of provincials that their provinces are won. Don’t think of the defeat of Vindex. Why, it was the Batavian cavalry which trampled on the Aedui and Arverni,285 and there were Belgic auxiliaries in Verginius’ force. The truth is that Gaul succumbed to her own armies. But now we are all united in one party, fortified, moreover, by the military discipline which prevails in Roman camps:

119 and we have on our side the veterans before whom Otho’s legions lately bit the dust. Let Syria and Asia play the slave:

the East is used to tyrants:

but there are many still living in Gaul who were born before the days of tribute.286 Indeed, it is only the other day287 that Quintilius Varus was killed, when slavery was driven out of Germany, and they brought into the field not the Emperor Vitellius but Caesar Augustus himself. Why, liberty is the natural prerogative even of dumb animals:

courage is the peculiar attribute of man. Heaven helps the brave. Come, then, fall upon them while your hands are free and theirs are tied, while you are fresh and they are weary. Some of them are for Vespasian, others for Vitellius;

now is your chance to crush both parties at once.’ 18Civilis thus had his eye on Gaul and Germany and aspired, had his project prospered, to become king of two countries, one pre-eminent in wealth and the other in military strength. 264 Cp. iii. 46. 265 One of the greatest and most warlike of the German tribes living in the modern Hessen-Nassau and Waldeck. Tacitus describes them at length in his Germania. 266 i.e. a stretch of land about sixty miles in length, from Nymwegen to the Hook of Holland, enclosed by the diverging mouths of the Rhine, the northern of which is now called the Lek, the southern the Waal (in Tacitus’ time Vahalis). The name Betuwe is still applied to the eastern part of this island. 267 In the Germania Tacitus says that, like weapons, they are kept exclusively for use in war, and are spared the indignity of taxation. 268 Some such word as peritus or exercitus must be supplied at the end of this chapter. 269 Probably during the revolt of Vindex. Capito governed Lower Germany. 270 Cp. i. 59. 271 The loss of an eye. 272 Governor of Upper Germany. 273 As a subordinate division of Lower Germany the Batavian district would be administered by ‘prefects’ subordinate to the imperial legate. 274 Vitellius had reduced the strength of the legions (cp. ii. 94). 275 Because it would weaken the position of Vitellius. 276 They lived north of the Batavi, between the Zuider Zee and the North Sea. 277 ii. 29. 278 Mogontiacum. 279 Caligula’s only trophy had been helmetfuls of stones and shells from the sea-shore of Germany. 280 Living in Friesland, north-east of the Zuider Zee. 281 Reading applicata (Andresen) instead of occupata, which gives no sense. The camp was probably somewhere near Katwyk. 282 The Nervii were a Gallic tribe living on the Sambre, with settlements at Cambray, Tournay, Bavay. Ritter’s alteration of Germanorum to Cugernorum is very probably right. They lived about a dozen miles west of Vetera, and are thus a likely recruiting-ground. They were of German origin, so if Germanorum is right, the reference will still be to them and the Tungri and other German Settlements on the east of the Rhine. 283 See ii. 42, note 301. Here, however, it is not improbable that the word cuneus means a V-shaped formation. Tacitus’ phrase in Germ. 6 is generally taken to mean that the Germans fought in wedge-formation. The separation of the three tribes in three columns was also typical of German tactics. The presence of kinsmen stimulated courage. 284 Presumably at the eastern end of the island, near either Nymwegen or Arnheim. 285 The Aedui lived in Bourgogne and Nivernois, between the Loire and the Saône;

the Arverni in Auvergne, north-west of the Cevennes. Both had joined Vindex. 286 ‘Many’ must be an exaggeration, since Augustus’ census of Gaul took place 27 b.c., ninety-five years ago. 287 Sixty years ago, to be exact. The Mutiny of the Batavian Cohorts Hordeonius Flaccus at first furthered Civilis’ schemes by shutting his eyes to them. But when messengers kept arriving in panic with news that a camp had been stormed, cohorts wiped out, and not a Roman left in the Batavian Island, he instructed120 Munius Lupercus, who commanded the two legions288 in winter-quarters,289 to march against the enemy. Lupercus lost no time in crossing the river,290 taking the legions whom he had with him, some Ubii291 who were close at hand, and the Treviran cavalry who were stationed not far away. To this force he added a regiment of Batavian cavalry, who, though their loyalty had long ago succumbed, still concealed the fact, because they hoped their desertion would fetch a higher price, if they actually betrayed the Romans on the field. Civilis set the standards of the defeated cohorts292 round him in a ring to keep their fresh honours before the eyes of his men, and to terrify the enemy by reminding them of their disaster. He also gave orders that his own mother and sisters and all the wives and small children of his soldiers should be stationed in the rear to spur them to victory or shame them if they were beaten.293 When his line raised their battle-cry, the men singing and the women shrieking, the legions and their auxiliaries replied with a comparatively feeble cheer, for their left wing had been exposed by the desertion of the Batavian cavalry, who promptly turned against us. However, despite the confusion, the 121legionaries gripped their swords and kept their places. Then the Ubian and Treviran auxiliaries broke in shameful flight and went wandering all over the country. The Germans pressed hard on their heels and meanwhile the legions could make good their escape into the camp, which was called ‘Castra Vetera’.294 Claudius Labeo, who commanded the Batavian cavalry, had opposed Civilis as a rival in some petty municipal dispute. Civilis was afraid that, if he killed him, he might offend his countrymen, while if he spared him his presence would give rise to dissension;

so he sent him off by sea to the Frisii. 19It was at this time that the cohorts of Batavians and Canninefates, on their way to Rome under orders from Vitellius, received the message which Civilis had sent to them.295 They promptly fell into a ferment of unruly insolence and demanded a special grant as payment for their journey, double pay, and an increase in the number of their cavalry.296 Although all these things had been promised by Vitellius they had no hope of obtaining them, but wanted an excuse for rebellion. Flaccus made many concessions, but the only result was that they redoubled their vigour and demanded what they felt sure he would refuse. Paying no further heed to him they made for Lower Germany, 122to join Civilis. Flaccus summoned the tribunes and centurions and debated with them whether he should use force to punish this defiance of authority. After a while he gave way to his natural cowardice and the fears of his subordinates, who were distressed by the thought that the loyalty of the auxiliaries was doubtful and that the legions had been recruited by a hurried levy. It was decided, therefore, to keep the soldiers in camp.297 However, he soon changed his mind when he found himself criticized by the very men whose advice he had taken. He now seemed bent on pursuit, and wrote to Herennius Gallus in command of the First legion, who was holding Bonn, telling him to bar the path of the Batavians, and promising that he and his army would follow hard upon their heels. The rebels might certainly have been crushed had Flaccus and Gallus each advanced their forces from opposite directions and thus surrounded them. But Flaccus soon gave up the idea, and wrote another letter to Gallus, warning him to let the rebels pass undisturbed. This gave rise to a suspicion that the generals were purposely promoting the war;

and all the disasters which had already occurred or were feared in the future, were attributed not to the soldiers’ inefficiency or the strength of the enemy, but to the treachery of the generals. 20On nearing the camp at Bonn, the Batavians sent forward a messenger to explain their intentions to Herennius Gallus. Against the Romans, for whom 123they had fought so often, they had no wish to make war:

but they were worn out after a long and unprofitable term of service and wanted to go home and rest. If no one opposed them they would march peaceably by;

but if hostility was offered they would find a passage at the point of the sword. Gallus hesitated, but his men induced him to risk an engagement. Three thousand legionaries, some hastily recruited Belgic auxiliaries, and a mob of peasants and camp-followers, who were as cowardly in action as they were boastful before it, came pouring out simultaneously from all the gates, hoping with their superior numbers to surround the Batavians. But these were experienced veterans. They formed up into columns298 in deep formation that defied assault on front, flank, or rear. They thus pierced our thinner line. The Belgae giving way, the legion was driven back and ran in terror to reach the trench and the gates of the camp. It was there that we suffered the heaviest losses. The trenches were filled with dead, who were not all killed by the blows of the enemy, for many were stifled in the press or perished on each other’s swords. The victorious cohorts avoided Cologne and marched on without attempting any further hostilities. For the battle at Bonn they continued to excuse themselves. They had asked for peace, they said, and when peace was persistently refused, had merely acted in self-defence. 288 V Alaudae and XV Primigenia, both depleted. 289 At Vetera. 290 Waal. 291 They lived round their chief town, known since a.d. 50 as Colonia Agrippinensis, now Cologne (cp. i. 56, note 106). 292 See chap. 16. 293 This was a German custom. We read in the Germania that in battle ‘they keep their dearest close at hand, where the women’s cries and the wailing of their babies can be heard’. 294 This means, of course, simply The Old Camp, but, as Tacitus treats Vetera as a proper name, it has been kept in the translation. It was probably on the Rhine near Xanten and Fürstenberg, some sixty-six miles north of Cologne. 295 Cp. i. 59;

ii. 97;

iv. 15. 296 Who got better pay for lighter service. 297 i.e. at Mainz, Bonn, Novaesium and Vetera. 298 See note 283. 124 The Siege of Vetera 21After the arrival of these veteran cohorts Civilis was now at the head of a respectable army. But being still uncertain of his plans, and engaged in reckoning up the Roman forces, he made all who were with him swear allegiance to Vespasian, and sent envoys to the two legions, who after their defeat in the former engagement299 had retired into Vetera, asking them to take the same oath. The answer came back that they never followed the advice either of a traitor or of an enemy:

Vitellius was their emperor, and they would keep their allegiance and their arms for him so long as they had breath in their bodies. A Batavian deserter need not try to decide the destiny of Rome;

he should rather expect the punishment he richly deserved. When this was reported to Civilis he flew into a passion, and called the whole Batavian people to take arms. They were joined by the Bructeri and Tencteri,300 and Germany was summoned to come and share the plunder and the glory. 22Threatened with this gathering storm, Munius Lupercus and Numisius Rufus, who were in command of the two legions, proceeded to strengthen the ramparts and walls. They pulled down the buildings near the military camp, which had grown into a small town during the long years of peace, fearing that the 125enemy might make use of them. But they omitted to provide a sufficient store of provisions for the camp, and authorized the soldiers to make up the deficiency by looting, with the result that what might have supplied their needs for a long time was consumed in a few days. Meanwhile Civilis advanced, himself holding the centre with the flower of the Batavi:

on both banks of the Rhine he massed large bands of Germans to strike terror into the enemy:

the cavalry galloped through the fields, while the ships were simultaneously moved up the stream. Here could be seen the colours of veteran Roman cohorts, there the figures of beasts which the Germans had brought from their woods and groves, as their tribes do when they go to battle. It seemed both a civil and a savage war at once;

and this strange confusion astounded the besieged. The hopes of the assailants rose when they saw the circumference of the ramparts, for there were barely five thousand Roman soldiers to defend a camp which had been laid out to hold two legions.301 However, a large number of camp-followers had collected there on the break-up of peace, and remained to give what assistance they could to the military operations. 23The camp was built partly on the gentle slope of a hill and partly on the level ground. Augustus had believed that it would serve as a base of operations and a check upon the German tribes:

as for their actually coming to assault our legions, such a disaster 126never occurred to him. Consequently no trouble had been taken in choosing the site or erecting defences:

the strength of the troops had always seemed sufficient. The Batavians and the Germans from across the Rhine302 now formed up tribe by tribe-the separation was designed to show their individual prowess-and opened fire from a distance. Finding that most of their missiles fell harmlessly on to the turrets and pinnacles of the walls, and that they were being wounded by stones hurled from above, they charged with a wild shout and surged up to the rampart, some using scaling-ladders, others climbing over their comrades who had formed a ‘tortoise’. But no sooner had some of them begun to scale the wall, than they were hurled down by the besieged, who thrust at them with sword and shield, and buried under a shower of stakes and javelins. The Germans are always impetuous at the beginning of an action and over-confident when they are winning;

and on this occasion their greed for plunder even steeled them to face difficulties. They actually attempted to use siege-engines, with which they were quite unfamiliar. But though they had no skill themselves, some of the deserters and prisoners showed them how to build a sort of bridge or platform of timber, on to which they fitted wheels and rolled it forward. Thus some of them stood on this platform and fought as though from a mound, while others, concealed inside, tried to undermine the walls. However, stones hurled from catapults soon 127destroyed this rude engine. Then they began to get ready hurdles and mantlets, but the besieged shot blazing spears on to them from engines, and even attacked the assailants themselves with fire-darts. At last they gave up all hope of an assault and resolved to try a waiting policy, being well aware that the camp contained only a few days’ provisions and a large number of non-combatants. They hoped that famine would breed treason, and counted, besides, on the wavering loyalty of the slaves and the usual hazards of war to aid them. 24Meanwhile, Flaccus,303 who had received news of the siege of Vetera, dispatched a party to recruit auxiliaries in Gaul, and gave Dillius Vocula, in command of the Twenty-second, a force of picked soldiers from his two legions.304 Vocula was to hurry by forced marches along the bank of the Rhine, while Flaccus himself was to approach by water, since he was in bad health and unpopular with his men. Indeed, they grumbled openly that he had let the Batavian cohorts get away from Mainz, had connived at Civilis’ schemes, and invited the Germans to join the alliance.

They had met at Poetovio1 at the head-quarters of the Third legion, where they debated whether they should block the passage of the Pannonian Alps and wait until their whole strength came up to reinforce them, or whether they should take a bolder line, assume the offensive, and strike for Italy.

Those who were in favour of waiting for reinforcements and prolonging the war dwelt on the strength and reputation of the German legions, and pointed out that the flower of the British army had lately arrived in Rome with Vitellius;2 their own forces were numerically inferior and had recently suffered defeat; moreover, conquered troops, however bold their language, never show the same courage.

On the other hand, if they occupied the Alps, Mucianus would soon arrive with the forces from the East.

Besides, Vespasian still3 commanded the sea, and could count on the support of the fleets4 and of the provinces, 10where he could still raise material for a sort of second war.

A salutary delay would bring them fresh forces without in any way prejudicing their present position.

2In answer to these arguments Antonius Primus,5 who had done more than any one else to stir up the war, stoutly maintained that prompt action would save them and ruin Vitellius.

‘Their victory,’ he said, ‘has not served to inspirit but to enervate them.

The men are not held in readiness in camp, but are loitering in towns all over Italy.

No one but their hosts has any call to fear them.

The more unruly and ferocious they showed themselves before, the greater the greed with which they now indulge in unwonted draughts of pleasure.

The circus, the theatre, and the charms of the capital have ruined their hardness and their health.

But if we give them time to train for war they will regain their energy.

It is not far to Germany, whence they draw their main strength.

Britain is only separated by a narrow channel.

Close at hand they have Gaul and Spain, from the provinces of which they can get men, horses, and subsidies.

Then again, they can rely on Italy itself and all the resources of the capital, while, if they want to take the offensive, they have two fleets6 and full command of the Illyrian Sea.

7 Besides, what good to us are the ramparts of the mountains? Why should we drag on the war into another summer? Where can we get funds and supplies in the meanwhile? No, let us seize our opportunity.

The Pannonian legions are 11burning to rise in revenge.

They were not defeated but deceived.

8 The Moesian army has not yet lost a man.

If you count not legions but men, our forces are superior both in numbers and in character.

The very shame of our defeat9 makes for good discipline.

And even then our cavalry was not beaten.

For though we lost the day, they shattered the enemy’s line.

10 And what was the force that broke through the Vitellians? Two regiments of cavalry from Pannonia and Moesia.

What have we now? Sixteen regiments.

Will not their combined forces, as they roar and thunder down upon the enemy, burying them in clouds of dust, overwhelm these horses and horsemen that have forgotten how to fight? I have given you my plan, and, unless I am stopped, I will put it in operation.

Some of you have not yet burnt your boats.

11 Well, you can keep back the legions.

Give me the auxiliaries in light marching order.

They will be enough for me.

You will soon hear that the door of Italy is open and the power of Vitellius shaken.

You will be glad enough to follow in the footsteps of my victory.

‘ 3All this and much else of the same tenor Antonius poured out with flashing eyes, raising his voice so as to reach the centurions and some of the soldiers, who had gathered round to share in their deliberations.

12 His truculent tone carried away even the more cautious 12and far-seeing, while the rest of the crowd were filled with contempt for the cowardice of the other generals, and cheered their one and only leader to the echo.

He had already established his reputation at the original meeting, when Vespasian’s letter13 was read.

Most of the generals had then taken an ambiguous line, intending to interpret their language in the light of subsequent events.

But Antonius seemed to have taken the field without any disguise, and this carried more weight with the men, who saw that he must share their disgrace or their glory.

4Next to Antonius in influence stood Cornelius Fuscus, the imperial agent.

14 He, too, always attacked Vitellius in no mild terms, and had left himself no hope in case of failure.

Tampius Flavianus15 was a man whose disposition and advanced years inclined him to dilatory measures, and he soon began to earn the dislike and suspicion of the soldiers, who felt he had not forgotten his kinship with Vitellius.

Besides this, when the legions first rose, he had fled to Italy and subsequently returned of his own free will, which looked like meditating treachery.

16 Having once given up his province and returned to Italy, he was out of the reach of danger, but the passion for revolution had induced him to resume his title and meddle in the civil war.

It was Cornelius Fuscus who had persuaded him to 13this-not that he needed his assistance, but because he felt that, especially at the outset of the rising, the prestige of an ex-consul would be a valuable asset to the party.

5In order to make their march across into Italy safe and effective, letters were sent to Aponius Saturninus17 to bring the Moesian army up as quickly as possible.

To prevent the exposure of the defenceless provinces to the attacks of foreign tribes, the chiefs of the Sarmatian Iazyges,18 who formed the government of the tribe, were enlisted in the service.

They also offered their tribal force, consisting entirely of cavalry, but were excused from this contribution for fear that the civil war might give opportunity for a foreign invasion, or that an offer of higher pay from the enemy might tempt them to sacrifice their duty and their honour.

19 Sido and Italicus, two princes of the Suebi,20 were allowed to join Vespasian’s side.

They had long acknowledged Roman sovereignty, and companionship in arms21 was likely to strengthen the loyalty of the tribe.

Some auxiliaries were stationed on the flank towards Raetia, where hostilities were expected, since 14the imperial agent Porcius Septiminus,22 remained incorruptibly loyal to Vitellius.

Sextilius Felix was therefore dispatched with Aurius’ Horse23 and eight cohorts of auxiliary infantry, together with the native levies of Noricum, to hold the line of the river Aenus,24 which forms the frontier of Raetia and Noricum.

Neither side provoked a battle: the fortune of the rival parties was decided elsewhere.

6Meanwhile, at the head of a picked band of auxiliaries and part of the cavalry, Antonius hurried off to invade Italy.

He took with him an energetic soldier named Arrius Varus, who had made his reputation while serving under Corbulo in his Armenian victories.

He was supposed to have sought a private interview with Nero, at which he maligned Corbulo’s character.

His infamous treachery brought him the emperor’s favour and a post as senior centurion.

This ill-gotten prize delighted him now, but ultimately proved his ruin.

25 After occupying Aquileia,26 Antonius and Varus found a ready welcome at Opitergium and Altinum27 and all the other towns in the neighbourhood.

At Altinum a garrison was left behind to guard their communications against the fleet at Ravenna, for the news of its desertion had not as yet arrived.

Pressing forward, they won Patavium and Ateste28 for the party.

15 At the latter place they learnt that three cohorts of Vitellius’ auxiliary infantry and a regiment of cavalry, known as Sebosus’ Horse,29 were established at Forum Alieni,30 where they had constructed a bridge.

31 The report added that they were off their guard, so this seemed a good opportunity to attack them.

They accordingly rushed the position at dawn, and cut down many of the men without their weapons.

Orders had been given that, after a few had been killed, the rest should be terrorized into desertion.

Some surrendered at once, but the majority succeeded in destroying the bridge, and thus checked the enemy’s pursuit.

The first bout had gone in the Flavians’ favour.

7When the news spread to Poetovio, the Seventh Galbian and the Thirteenth Gemina hurried in high spirits to Patavium under the command of Vedius Aquila.

At Patavium they were given a few days’ rest, during which Minicius Justus, the camp-prefect of the Seventh legion, who endeavoured to enforce a standard of discipline too severe for civil war, had to be rescued from the fury of his troops and sent to Vespasian.

Antonius conceived that his party would gain in prestige, if they showed approval of Galba’s government, and stood for the revival of his cause.

So he gave orders that all the statues of Galba, which had been thrown down during the civil war, should be replaced for worship throughout the country towns.

16 This was a thing that had long been desired, and in their ambitious imaginations it assumed an undue importance.

8The question then arose where they should choose their seat of war.

The best place seemed to be Verona.

The open country round it was suited for the manœuvres of the cavalry, in which their strength lay: and they would gain both prestige and profit by wresting from Vitellius a strongly garrisoned town.

On the road they occupied Vicetia.

32 In itself this was a very small matter, since there was only a moderate force in the town, but it gained considerable importance from the reflection that it was Caecina’s birthplace: the enemy’s general had thus lost his native town.

But Verona was well worth while.

The inhabitants could aid the party with encouragement and funds: the army was thrust midway between Raetia and the Julian Alps,33 and had thus blocked all passages by that route for the German armies.

This move had been made either without the knowledge or against the orders of Vespasian.

His instructions were to suspend operations at Aquileia and wait for the arrival of Mucianus.

He had further added this consideration, that so long as he held Egypt and the key to the corn-supply,34 as well as the revenue of the richest provinces,35 he could reduce Vitellius’ army to submission from sheer lack of money and provisions.

Mucianus had sent letter after letter 17with the same advice, pointing to the prospect of a victory without bloodshed or bereavement, and using other similar pretexts to conceal his real motive.

This was ambition.

He wanted to keep all the glory of the war to himself.

However, the distance was so great that events outran his instructions.

9Antonius accordingly made a sudden sally against the enemy’s outposts, and after a slight skirmish, in which they tested each other’s temper, both sides withdrew without advantage.

Soon after, Caecina entrenched a strong position between a Veronese village called Hostilia36 and the marshes of the river Tartaro.

Here he was safe, with the river in his rear and the marsh to guard his flanks.

Had he added loyalty to his other advantages, he might have employed the full strength of the Vitellian forces to crush the enemy’s two legions, before they were reinforced by the Moesian army, or, at least, have forced them to retire in ignominious flight and abandon Italy.

But Caecina used various pretexts for delay, and at the outset of the war treacherously yielded all his advantages to the enemy.

While it was open to him to rout them by force of arms, he preferred to pester them with letters and to wait until his intermediaries had settled the terms of his treason.

In the meantime, Aponius Saturninus arrived with the Seventh Claudian legion,37 commanded by the tribune38 Vipstanus Messala, a distinguished member 18of a famous family, and the only man who brought any honesty to this war.

39 To these forces, still only three legions and no match for the Vitellians, Caecina addressed his letters.

He criticized their rash attempt to sustain a lost cause, and at the same time praised the courage of the German army in the highest terms.

His allusions to Vitellius were few and casual, and he refrained from insulting Vespasian.

In fact he used no language calculated either to seduce or to terrorize the enemy.

The Flavian generals made no attempt to explain away their former defeat.

They proudly championed Vespasian, showing their loyalty to the cause, their confidence in the army, and their hostile prejudice40 against Vitellius.

To the tribunes and centurions they held out the hope of retaining all the favours they had won from Vitellius, and they urged Caecina himself in plain terms to desert.

These letters 19were both read before a meeting of the Flavian army, and served to increase their confidence, for while Caecina wrote mildly and seemed afraid of offending Vespasian, their own generals had answered contemptuously and scoffed at Vitellius.

10When the two other legions arrived, the Third41 commanded by Dillius Aponianus, and the Eighth by Numisius Lupus, Antonius decided to entrench Verona and make a demonstration in force.

It so happened that the Galbian legion, who had been told off to work in the trenches facing the enemy, catching sight of some of their allies’ cavalry in the distance, took them for the enemy, and fell into a groundless panic.

Suspecting treachery, they seized their arms and visited their fury on Tampius Flavianus.

42 They could prove no charge against him, but he had long been unpopular, and a blind impulse made them clamour for his head.

He was Vitellius’ kinsman, they howled; he had betrayed Otho; he had embezzled their donative.

They would listen to no defence, although he implored them with outstretched hands, grovelling for the most part flat upon the ground, his clothes all torn, his face and chest shaken with sobs.

This only served to inflame the soldiers’ anger.

His very excess of terror seemed to prove his guilt.

Aponius43 tried to address them, but his voice was drowned in their shouts.

The others, too, were contemptuously howled down.

They would give no one a hearing except Antonius, who had the power of 20authority as well as the arts of eloquence necessary to quiet a mob.

When the riot grew worse, and they began to pass from insulting speeches to murderous violence, he gave orders that Flavianus should be put in chains.

Feeling that this was a farce,44 the soldiers broke through the guards round the general’s quarters, prepared to resort to extremities.

Whereupon Antonius, drawing his sword, bared his breast and vowed that he would die either by their hands or his own.

Whenever he saw a soldier whom he knew or could recognize by his decorations, he called on him by name to come to the rescue.

At last he turned towards the standards and the gods of war,45 and prayed incessantly that they would rather inspire the enemy’s army with this mad spirit of mutiny.

At last the riot died away and at nightfall they all dispersed to their tents.

Flavianus left that same night, and on his way met letters from Vespasian, which delivered him from danger.

11The infection seemed to spread among the legions.

They next attacked Aponius Saturninus, who was in command of the Moesian army.

This fresh disturbance was caused by the circulation of a letter, which Saturninus was supposed to have written to Vitellius, and it was the more alarming since it broke out not when they were tired by their labours but in the 21middle of the day.

Once the soldiers had vied with each other in courage and discipline: now they were rivals in ribaldry and riot.

They were determined that the fury with which they denounced Aponius should not fall short of their outcry against Flavianus.

The Moesian legions remembered that they had helped the Pannonian army to take their revenge; while the Pannonian troops, feeling that their comrades’ mutiny acquitted them of blame, were glad enough to repeat the crime.

They invaded the country house in which Saturninus was living.

He escaped, however, aided not so much by the efforts of Antonius, Aponianus, and Messala, who did everything in their power to rescue him, but rather by the security of his hiding-place, for he concealed himself in the furnace of some disused baths.

Eventually he gave up his lictors and retired to Patavium.

The departure of both the consular governors left Antonius in supreme command of the two armies.

His colleagues46 deferred to him and the men gave him enthusiastic support.

It was even supposed by some that he had cunningly promoted both outbreaks, to secure for himself the full profit of the war.

1 Petau.

2 i.

e.

the detachments 8,000 strong from the army in Britain (see ii.

57).

3 i.

e.

still, after parting with the force which he had sent forward under Mucianus (see ii.

82, 83).

4 Of Pontus, Syria, and Egypt.

5 See ii.

86.

6 Of Misenum and Ravenna.

7 Adriatic.

8 See ii.

42.

9 At Bedriacum.

10 See ii.

41.

11 i.

e.

not yet declared finally against Vitellius.

12 These were usually confined to the legates, camp-prefects, tribunes, and senior centurions.

13 See ii.

82.

14 In Pannonia (see ii.

86).

15 Military governor of Pannonia (see ii.

86).

16 i.

e.

they suspected that he wanted to alienate the troops from Vespasian.

17 Military governor of Moesia (see i.

79, &c.

).

18 They occupied part of Hungary between the Danube and the Theiss.

19 They took the chiefs as a pledge of peace and kept them safely apart from their tribal force.

20 Tiberius’ son, Drusus, had in a.

d.

19 settled the Suebi north of the Danube between the rivers March and Waag.

21 Reading commilitio (Meiser).

The word commissior in the Medicean manuscript gives no sense.

22 This being a small province the procurator was sole governor.

23 A squadron of Spanish horse, called after some governor of the province where it was raised.

24 The Inn.

25 Probably under Domitian, who married Corbulo’s daughter.

26 See ii.

46.

27 Oderzo and Altino.

28 Este.

29 A Gallic troop called after some unknown governor.

30 (?) Legnago.

31 Over the Adige.

32 Vicenza.

33 The Brenner.

34 i.

e.

Alexandria.

35 i.

e.

Egypt, Syria, Asia.

36 Ostiglia.

37 From Moesia (cp.

chap.

5).

38 The legate Tettius Julianus had fled (see ii.

85).

39 He also wrote a history of the period, which Tacitus found useful (see ii.

101, note 459).

He is one of the characters in the Dialogue on Oratory, and many passages show that Tacitus admired him greatly, both for his character and his eloquence.

40 The text here is doubtful.

There seems to be no exact parallel to the absolute use of praesumpsere.

In the Medicean MS.

the whole passage, from revirescere at the end of chap.

7 down to inimici here, has been transposed to the beginning of chap.

5, where it stands between the second and third syllables of the word Saturnino.

Thus in M.

praesumpsere stands immediately after partes.

It is possible that the word partes may belong to this passage as well as to the end of chap.

7.

Praesumpsere partes would mean ‘they took their own cause for granted’ (cp.

Quintilian xi.

1.

27).

The addition of ut inimici would add the sense of ‘hostile prejudice’.

41 Gallica.

42 See chap.

4, note 15.

43 Saturninus.

44 We have seen this trick before (cp.

i.

45).

45 Mars, Bellona, Victoria, Pavor, &c.

, whose images were wrought in medallion on the shafts of the standards, which themselves too were held sacred.

46 i.

e.

Vedius, Dillius, Numisius, Vipstanus Messala.

Dissension in Vitellius’ Camp 1247Vitellius’ party was equally a prey to disquiet, and there the dissension was the more fatal, since it was aroused not by the men’s suspicions but by the 22treachery of the generals.

The sailors of the fleet at Ravenna were mostly drawn from the provinces of Dalmatia and Pannonia, which were both held for Vespasian, and while they were still wavering, the admiral, Lucilius Bassus, decided them in favour of the Flavian party.

Choosing the night-time for their treason, the conspirators assembled at head-quarters without the knowledge of the other sailors.

Bassus, who was either ashamed or uncertain of their success, awaited developments in his house.

Amid great disturbance the ships’ captains attacked the images of Vitellius and cut down the few men who offered any resistance.

The rest of the fleet were glad enough of a change, and their sympathies soon came round to Vespasian.

Then Lucilius appeared and publicly claimed responsibility.

The fleet appointed Cornelius Fuscus48 as their admiral, and he came hurrying on to the scene.

Bassus was put under honourable arrest and conveyed with an escort of Liburnian cruisers49 to Atria,50 where he was imprisoned by Vibennius Rufinus, who commanded a regiment of auxiliary horse in garrison there.

However, he was soon set free on the intervention of Hormus, one of the emperor’s freedmen.

For he, too, ranked as a general.

13When the news that the navy had gone over became known, Caecina, carefully selecting a moment when the camp was deserted, and the men had all gone to their various duties, summoned to head-quarters the senior centurions and a few of the soldiers.

He then proceeded 23to praise the spirit and the strength of Vespasian’s party: ‘they themselves had been deserted by the fleet; they were cramped for supplies; Spain and Gaul were against them; Rome could not be trusted.

‘ In every way he exaggerated the weakness of Vitellius’ position.

Eventually, when some of his accomplices had given the cue and the rest were dumbfoundered by his change of front, he made them all swear allegiance to Vespasian.

Immediately the portraits51 of Vitellius were torn down and messengers dispatched to Antonius.

However, when the treason got abroad in the camp, and the men returning to head-quarters saw Vespasian’s name on the standards and Vitellius’ portraits scattered on the ground, at first there was an ominous silence: then with one voice they all vented their feelings.

Had the pride of the German army sunk so low that without a battle and without a blow they should let their hands be shackled and render up their arms? What had they against them? None but defeated troops.

The only sound legions of Otho’s army, the First and the Fourteenth, Vespasian had not got, and even those they had routed and cut to pieces on that same field.

And all for what? That these thousands of fighting men should be handed over like a drove of slaves to Antonius, the convict!52 ‘Eight legions, forsooth, are to follow the lead of one miserable fleet.

Such is the pleasure of Bassus and Caecina.

They have robbed the emperor of his home, his estate, and all his wealth, and now they want to take away his troops.

24 We have never lost a man nor shed a drop of blood.

The very Flavians will despise us.

What answer can we give when they question us about our victory or our defeat?’ 14Thus they shouted one and all as their indignation urged them.

Led by the Fifth legion, they replaced the portraits of Vitellius and put Caecina in irons.

They selected Fabius Fabullus, commanding the Fifth legion, and the camp-prefect, Cassius Longus, to lead them.

Some marines who arrived at this point from three Liburnian cruisers,53 quite innocent and unaware of what had happened, were promptly butchered.

Then the men deserted their camp, broke down the bridge,54 and marched back to Hostilia, and thence to Cremona to join the two legions, the First Italian and Twenty-first Rapax, which Caecina had sent ahead55 with some of the cavalry to occupy Cremona.

47 The narrative is now resumed from the end of Book II.

48 See ii.

86.

49 See ii.

16, note 247.

50 Atri.

51 i.

e.

the medallions on the standards.

52 See ii.

86.

53 See ii.

16, note 247.

54 Over the Tartaro (chap.

9).

55 See ii.

100.

The Engagement near Cremona 15When Antonius heard of this he determined to attack the enemy while they were still at variance and their forces divided.

The Vitellian generals would soon recover their authority and the troops their discipline, and confidence would come if the two divisions were allowed to join.

He guessed also that Fabius Valens had already started from Rome and would hasten his march when he heard of Caecina’s 25treachery.

Valens was loyal to Vitellius and an experienced soldier.

There was good reason, besides, to fear an attack on the side of Raetia from an immense force of German irregulars.

Vitellius had already summoned auxiliaries from Britain, Gaul, and Spain in sufficient numbers to blight their chances utterly, had not Antonius in fear of this very prospect forestalled the victory by hurriedly forcing an engagement.

In two days he marched his whole force from Verona to Bedriacum.

56 On the next day57 he left his legions behind to fortify the camp, and sent out his auxiliary infantry into territory belonging to Cremona, to taste the joys of plundering their compatriots under pretext of collecting supplies.

To secure greater freedom for their depredations, he himself advanced at the head of four thousand cavalry eight miles along the road from Bedriacum.

The scouts, as is usual, turned their attention further afield.

16About eleven in the morning a mounted scout galloped up with the news that the enemy were at hand; there was a small body in advance of the rest, but the noise of an army in movement could be heard over the country-side.

While Antonius was debating what he ought to do, Arrius Varus, who was greedy to distinguish himself, galloped out with the keenest of the troopers and charged the Vitellians, inflicting only slight loss; for, on the arrival of reinforcements, the tables were turned and those who had been hottest in pursuit were now hindmost in the rout.

Their 26haste had no sanction from Antonius, who had foreseen what would happen.

Encouraging his men to engage with brave hearts, he drew off the cavalry on to each flank and left a free passage in the centre to receive Varus and his troopers.

Orders were sent to the legions to arm and signals were displayed to the foraging party, summoning them to cease plundering and join the battle by the quickest possible path.

Meanwhile Varus came plunging in terror into the middle of their ranks, spreading confusion among them.

The fresh troops were swept back along with the wounded, themselves sharing the panic and sorely embarrassed by the narrowness of the road.

17In all the confusion of the rout Antonius never for a moment forgot what befitted a determined general and a brave soldier.

Staying the panic-stricken, checking the fugitives, wherever the fight was thickest, wherever he saw a gleam of hope, he schemed, he fought, he shouted, always conspicuous to his own men and a mark for the enemy.

At last, in the heat of his impatience, he thrust through with a lance a standard-bearer, who was in full flight, then seized the standard and turned it against the enemy.

Whereupon for very shame a few of his troopers, not more than a hundred, made a stand.

The nature of the ground helped them.

The road there was narrower; a stream barred their way, and the bridge was broken; its depth was uncertain and the steep banks checked their flight.

Thus necessity or chance restored their fallen fortunes.

Forming in close order, they received 27the Vitellians’ reckless and disordered charge, and at once flung them into confusion.

Antonius pressed hard on the fugitives and cut down all who blocked his path.

The others followed each his inclination, rifling the dead, capturing prisoners, seizing arms and horses.

Meanwhile, summoned by their shouts of triumph, those who had just now been in full flight across the fields came hurrying back to share the victory.

18Four miles from Cremona they saw the standards of the Rapax and Italian legions gleaming in the sun.

They had marched out thus far under cover of their cavalry’s original success.

When fortune turned against them, they neither opened their ranks to receive the routed troops nor marched out to attack the enemy, who were wearied with fighting and their long pursuit.

While all went well the Vitellians did not miss their general, but in the hour of danger they realized their loss.

The victorious cavalry came charging into their wavering line, and at the same time Vipstanus Messala arrived with the Moesian auxiliaries and a good number of men from the legions, who had kept up with the pace of their forced march.

58 These combined forces broke the opposing column, and the proximity of Cremona’s sheltering walls gave the Vitellians more hope of refuge and less stomach for resistance.

56 About thirty-three miles.

57 October 27.

58 They would be more heavily laden than the Moesian auxiliaries.

28 The Fate of Cremona Antonius did not follow up his advantage.

He realized that, although the issue had been successful, the battle had long been doubtful, and had cost the troopers and their horses many wounds and much hard fighting.

19As evening fell, the whole strength of the Flavian army arrived.

They had marched among heaps of corpses, and the still reeking traces of slaughter, and now, feeling that the war was over, they clamoured to advance at once on Cremona and either receive its submission or take it by storm.

This sounded well for public utterance, but each man in his heart was thinking, ‘We could easily rush a city on the plain.

In a night-assault men are just as brave and have a better chance of plunder.

If we wait for day it will be all peace and petitions, and what shall we get for our wounds and our labours? A reputation for mercy! There’s no money in that.

All the wealth of Cremona will find its way into the officers’ pockets.

Storm a city, and the plunder goes to the soldiers: if it surrenders, the generals get it.

‘ They refused to listen to their centurions and tribunes and drowned their voices in a rattle of arms, swearing they would break their orders unless they were led out.

20Antonius then went round among the companies, where his authoritative bearing obtained silence.

He assured them that he had no wish to rob them of the glory and the reward they so well deserved.

‘But,’ he said, ‘an army and a general have different functions.

It is right that soldiers 29should be greedy for battle, but the general often does more good not by temerity but by foresight, deliberation and delay.

I have done all I could to aid your victory with my sword: now I will serve you by the general’s proper arts of calculation and strategy.

The risks that face us are obvious.

It is night; we know nothing of the lie of the city; the enemy are behind the walls; everything favours an ambush.

Even if the gates were open, we cannot safely enter except by day and after due reconnoitring.

Are you going to begin storming the town when you cannot possibly see where the ground is level and how high the walls are? How do you know whether to assault it with engines and showers of missiles, or with penthouses and shelters?’59 Then he turned to individuals, asking one after another whether they had brought hatchets and pick-axes and other implements for storming a town.

When they answered no, ‘Well,’ he said, ‘could any troops possibly break through walls or undermine them with nothing but swords and javelins? Suppose it proves necessary to construct a mound and to shelter ourselves with mantlets and fascines,59 are we going to stand idle like a lot of helpless idiots, gaping at the height of the enemy’s towers and ramparts? Why not rather wait one night till our siege-train arrives and then carry the victory by force?’ So saying, he sent the camp-followers and servants with the freshest of the troopers back to Bedriacum to bring up supplies and whatever else was wanted.

3021The soldiers indeed chafed at this and mutiny seemed imminent, when some of the mounted scouts, who had ridden right up to the walls, captured a few stragglers from Cremona, and learnt from them that six Vitellian legions and the whole Hostilia army had that very day covered thirty miles, and, hearing of their comrades’ defeat, were already arming for battle and would be on them immediately.

This alarming news cured their obstinate deafness to the general’s advice.

He ordered the Thirteenth legion to take up their position on the raised Postumian high-road.

In touch with them on the left wing in the open country were the Seventh Galbian, beside whom stood the Seventh Claudian, so placed that their front was protected by a ditch.

On the right wing were the Eighth, drawn up along an open cross-road, and next to them the Third, distributed among some thick clumps of trees.

Such, at any rate, was the order of the eagles and standards.

In the darkness the soldiers were confused and took their places at random.

The band of Guards60 was next to the Third, and the auxiliaries on the wings, while the cavalry were disposed in support round the flanks and the rear.

Sido and Italicus with their picked band of Suebi61 fought in the front line.

22For the Vitellians the right course was to rest at Cremona and recuperate their strength with food and a night’s rest, and then on the next day to crush and 31rout the Flavians when they were stiff with cold and weak from hunger.

But they had no general;62 they had no plan.

Though it was nearly nine at night they flung themselves upon the Flavians, who were standing steady in their places to receive them.

In their fury and the darkness the Vitellian line was so disordered that one can hardly venture to describe the disposition of their troops.

However, it has been stated that the Fourth Macedonian legion were on the right flank; in the centre were the Fifth and Fifteenth with the detachments of the Ninth, the Second and the Twentieth from Britain; the Sixteenth, the Twenty-second, and the First formed the left wing.

The men of the Rapax and Italian legions63 were distributed among all the companies.

64 The cavalry and auxiliaries picked their own position.

All night the battle raged with varying fortune, never decided, always savagely contested.

Disaster threatened now one side, now the other.

Courage, strength were of little use: their eyes could not even see in front of them.

Both sides were armed alike; the watchwords, constantly demanded, soon became known; the standards were all in confusion, as they were captured and carried off from one band to another.

The Seventh legion, raised recently by Galba, suffered most severely.

Six of the senior centurions fell and several 32standards were lost.

They nearly lost their eagle too, but it was rescued by the bravery of the senior centurion, named Atilius Verus, who after great slaughter of the enemy fell finally himself.

23Antonius had meanwhile called up the Guards to reinforce his wavering line.

Taking up the fight, they repulsed the enemy, only to be repulsed in their turn.

For the Vitellian artillery, which had at first been scattered all along the line, and had been discharged upon the bushes without hurting the enemy, was now massed upon the high-road, and swept the open space in front.

One immense engine in particular, which belonged to the Fifteenth, mowed down the Flavian line with huge stones.

The slaughter thus caused would have been enormous, had not two of the Flavian soldiers performed a memorable exploit.

Concealing their identity by snatching up shields from among the enemy’s dead,65 they cut the ropes which suspended the weights of the engine.

They fell immediately, riddled with wounds, and so their names have perished.

But of their deed there is no doubt.

Fortune had favoured neither side when, as the night wore on, the moon rose and threw a deceptive glamour over the field of battle.

Shining from behind the Flavians the moon was in their favour.

It magnified the shadows of their men and horses so that the enemy took the shadow for the substance, and their 33missiles were misdirected and fell short.

The Vitellians, on the other hand, had the moon shining full on them and were an easy mark for the Flavians, shooting as it were out of cover.

66 24Thus being enabled to recognize his own men, and to be recognized by them, Antonius appealed to some by taunting their honour, to many by words of praise and encouragement, to all by promising hope of reward.

He asked the Pannonian legions why they had drawn their swords again.

Here on this field they could regain their glory and wipe out the stain of their former disgrace.

67 Then turning to the Moesian troops, who were the chief promoters of the war,68 he told them it was no good challenging the Vitellians with verbal threats, if they could not bear to face them and their blows.

Thus he addressed each legion as he reached it.

To the Third he spoke at greater length, reminding them of their victories both old and new.

Had they not under Mark Antony defeated the Parthians69 and the Armenians under Corbulo?70 Had they not but lately crushed the Sarmatians?71 Then he turned in fury on the Guards.

‘Peasants that you are,’ he shouted, ‘have you another emperor, another camp waiting to shelter you, if you are defeated? There in the enemy’s line are your standards 34and your arms: defeat means death and-no, you have drained disgrace already to the dregs.

‘ These words roused cheers on all sides, and the Third, following the Syrian custom,72 saluted the rising sun.

25Thus arose a casual rumour-or possibly it was suggested by the general’s ingenuity-that Mucianus had arrived, and that the two armies were cheering each other.

On they pressed, feeling they had been reinforced.

The Vitellian line was more ragged now, for, having no general to marshal them, their ranks now filled, now thinned, with each alternation of courage and fear.

As soon as Antonius saw them waver, he kept thrusting at them in massed column.

The line bent and then broke, and the inextricable confusion of wagons and siege-engines prevented their rallying.

The victorious troops scattered along the cross-road in headlong pursuit.

The slaughter was marked by one peculiar horror.

A son killed his father.

I give the facts and names on the authority of Vipstanus Messala.

73 One Julius Mansuetus, a Spaniard who had joined the legion Rapax, had left a young son at home.

This boy subsequently grew up and enlisted in the Seventh legion, raised by Galba.

74 Chance now sent his father in his way, and he felled him to the ground.

While he was ransacking the dying man, they recognized each other.

Flinging his arms round the now lifeless corpse, in 35a piteous voice he implored his father’s spirit to be appeased and not to turn against him as a parricide.

The crime was his country’s, he cried; what share had a single soldier in these civil wars? Meanwhile he lifted the body and began to dig a grave and perform the last rites for his father.

Those who were nearest noticed this; then the story began to spread, till there ran through the army astonishment and many complaints and curses against this wicked war.

Yet they never ceased busily killing and plundering friends and relatives and brothers; and while they talked of the crime they were committing it themselves.

26When they reached Cremona a fresh task of vast difficulty awaited them.

During the war with Otho75 the German army had entrenched their camp round the walls of Cremona and then erected a rampart round the camp; and these fortifications had been further strengthened.

The sight of them brought the victors to a halt, and their generals were uncertain what instructions to give.

The troops had had no rest for a day and a night.

To storm the town at once would be an arduous and, in the absence of reserves, a perilous task.

On the other hand, a retreat to Bedriacum would involve the intolerable fatigue of a long march, and destroy the value of their victory.

Again, it would be dangerous to entrench themselves so close to the lines of the enemy, who might at any minute sally forth and rout them while they were dispersed and digging trenches.

The chief anxiety lay in the temper 36of the men, who were much more ready to face danger than delay.

To them discretion was disagreeable and hazard spelt hope.

Their thirst for plunder outweighed all fears of wounds and bloodshed.

27Antonius also inclined to this view and gave orders for them to surround the rampart.

At first they stood back and delivered volleys of arrows and stones, suffering themselves the severer loss, for a storm of missiles rained down from the walls.

Antonius then told off each legion to assault a different point of the rampart or one of the gates, hoping that by thus separating them he could distinguish the cowards from the brave and inflame them with a spirit of honourable rivalry.

The Third and Seventh took the position nearest the road to Bedriacum; the Eighth and Seventh Claudian assaulted the right-hand side of the rampart; the Thirteenth swept up to the Brixian Gate.

76 A brief delay was caused while some fetched mattocks and pickaxes from the fields, and others hooks and ladders.

Then holding their shields above their heads in close ‘tortoise’ formation,77 they advanced under the rampart.

Both sides employed Roman tactics.

The Vitellians rolled down huge masses of stones, and, as the sheltering cover of shields parted and wavered, they thrust at it with lances and poles, until at last 37the whole structure was broken up and they mowed down the torn and bleeding soldiers beneath with terrible slaughter.

The men would certainly have hesitated, had not the generals, realizing that they were really too tired to respond to any other form of encouragement, pointed significantly to Cremona.

28Whether this was Hormus’s idea, as Messala78 records, or whether we should rather follow Caius Pliny, who accuses Antonius, it is not easy to determine.

This one may say, that, however abominable the crime, yet in committing it neither Antonius nor Hormus belied the reputation of their lives.

After this neither wounds nor bloodshed could stay the Flavian troops.

They demolished the rampart, shook the gates, climbed up on each other’s shoulders, or over the re-formed ‘tortoise’, and snatched away the enemy’s weapons or caught hold of them by the arms.

Thus the wounded and unwounded, the half-dead and the dying, all came rolling down and perished together by every imaginable kind of death.

29The fight raged thickest round the Third and Seventh legions, and the general, Antonius, came up with a picked band of auxiliaries to support their assault.

The Vitellians, finding themselves unable to resist the attack of troops thus stubbornly vying with each other, and seeing their missiles all glide off the shelter of shields, at last sent their engine of war crashing down upon their heads.

For the moment it 38scattered and crushed beneath it the men on whom it fell, but it dragged with it some of the battlements and the top of the rampart.

At the same moment one of the towers on the rampart gave way under a shower of stones.

While the men of the Seventh struggled up to the breach in close column,79 the Third hewed down the gate with hatchets and swords.

All the authorities80 agree that Caius Volusius of the Third legion was the first man in.

Emerging on the top of the rampart, he hurled down those who barred his path, and from this conspicuous position waved his hand and shouted that the camp was taken.

The others poured through, while the Vitellians in panic flung themselves down from the rampart, and the whole space between the camp and the walls became a seething scene of carnage.

30Here, again, was a new type of task for the Flavians.

Here were high walls, stone battlements, iron-barred gates, and soldiers hurling javelins.

The citizens of Cremona were numerous and devoted to the cause of Vitellius, and half Italy had gathered there for the Fair which fell just at that time.

Their numbers were a help to the defenders, but the prospect of plundering them offered an incentive to their assailants.

Antonius ordered his men to bring fire and apply it to the most beautiful of the buildings outside the walls, hoping that the loss of their property might induce the citizens to turn traitor.

The houses that stood nearest to 39the walls and overtopped them he crowded with his bravest troops, who dislodged the defenders with showers of beams and tiles and flaming torches.

31Meanwhile, some of the legionaries began to advance in ‘tortoise’ formation,81 while others kept up a steady fire of javelins and stones.

Gradually the spirit of the Vitellians ebbed.

The higher their rank, the more easily they gave way to misfortune.

For they were afraid that if Cremona too82 was demolished, there would be no hope of pardon; the victors’ fury would fall not on the common poor but on the tribunes and centurions, whom it would pay to kill.

The common soldiers felt safe in their obscurity, and, careless of the future, continued to offer resistance.

They roamed the streets or hid themselves in houses, and though they had given up the war, refused even so to sue for peace.

Meanwhile the tribunes and centurions did away with the name and portraits of Vitellius.

83 They released Caecina, who was still in irons,84 and begged his help in pleading their cause.

When he turned from them in haughty contempt they besought him with tears.

It was, indeed, the last of evils that all these brave men should invoke a traitor’s aid.

They then hung veils and fillets85 out on the walls, and when Antonius had given the order to cease 40firing, they carried out their standards and eagles, followed by a miserable column of disarmed soldiers, dejectedly hanging their heads.

The victors had at first crowded round, heaping insults on them and threatening violence, but when they found that the vanquished had lost all their proud spirit, and turned their cheeks with servile endurance to every indignity, they gradually began to recollect that these were the men who had made such a moderate use of their victory at Bedriacum.

86 But when the crowd parted, and Caecina advanced in his consular robes, attended by his lictors in full state, their indignation broke into flame.

They charged him with insolence and cruelty, and-so hateful is crime-they even flung his treachery in his teeth.

87 Antonius restrained them and sent Caecina under escort to Vespasian.

32Meanwhile the citizens of Cremona suffered sorely from the violence of the troops, and only the entreaties of their generals could withhold them from a general massacre.

Antonius summoned a mass meeting and delivered a eulogy upon his victorious army, promising mercy to the vanquished and speaking of Cremona in ambiguous terms.

Besides their natural passion for plunder, there was an old grudge which urged them to sack Cremona.

The town was believed to have given assistance to the Vitellian cause before this in the war with Otho;88 and again, when the Thirteenth 41had been left behind to build an amphitheatre,89 the populace had shown its town-bred impertinence by assailing them with insolent ridicule.

Other causes increased this bad feeling: it was here that Caecina had given his show of gladiators:89 the town had become for a second time the theatre of the war: the citizens had conveyed food to the Vitellians during the battle: some women had been killed, whose enthusiasm for the cause had led them to take part in the fight.

Besides all this, the Fair had filled the rich city with an even greater display of wealth than usual.

All eyes were now centred on Antonius, whose fame and good fortune overshadowed all the other generals.

It so happened that he hurried off to the baths to wash off the stains of blood.

Finding fault with the temperature of the water, he received the answer, ‘It will not be long before it is hot,’ and this phrase was caught up.

The attendant’s words were repeated, and brought all the odium on Antonius, who was thus believed to have given the signal to set fire to Cremona, which was already in flames.

90 33Thus forty thousand soldiers burst into the town with a yet larger crowd of servants and sutlers, even more depraved than the soldiers in their readiness for cruelty and lust.

Without any respect for age or for 42authority they added rape to murder and murder to rape.

Aged men and decrepit old women, who were worthless as booty, were hustled off to make sport for them.

If some grown girl or a handsome youth fell into their clutches, they would be torn to pieces in the struggle for possession, while the plunderers were left to cut each other’s throats.

Whoever carried off money or any of the solid gold offerings in the temples was liable to be cut to pieces, if he met another stronger than himself.

Some, disdaining easy finds, hunted for hidden hoards, and dug out buried treasure, flogging and torturing the householders.

They held torches in their hands and, having once secured their prize, would fling them wantonly into an empty house or some dismantled temple.

Composed as the army was of citizens, allies, and foreign troops, differing widely in language and customs, the objects of the soldiers’ greed differed also.

But while their views of what was right might vary, they all agreed in thinking nothing wrong.

Cremona lasted them four days.

While all other buildings sacred and secular sank in the flames, only the temple of Mefitis outside the walls was left standing, saved either by its position or the power of the presiding deity.

91 34Such was the end of Cremona two hundred and eighty-six years after its foundation.

It had been originally built in the consulship of Tiberius Sempronius and Publius Cornelius, while Hannibal was 43threatening to invade Italy, to serve as a bulwark against the Gauls beyond the Po,92 and to resist any other power that might break in over the Alps.

And so it grew and flourished, aided by its large number of settlers, its conveniently situated rivers,93 the fertility of its territory, and its connexion through alliance and intermarriage with other communities.

Foreign invasions had left it untouched only to become the victim of civil war.

Antonius, ashamed of his crime, and realizing his growing disfavour, proclaimed that no citizen of Cremona was to be kept as a prisoner of war; and, indeed, the unanimous feeling in Italy against buying such slaves had already frustrated the soldiers’ hope of profit.

So they began to kill their captives, whose relatives and friends, when this became known, covertly bought their release.

After a while, the rest of the inhabitants returned, and the squares and temples were rebuilt by the munificence of the burghers and under Vespasian’s direct patronage.

35However, the soil was so foully infected by the reek of blood that it was impossible for the Flavians to encamp for long on the ruins of this buried city.

They advanced along the road to the third milestone, and mustered the Vitellians, still straggling and panic-stricken, each under his own standard.

The defeated legions were then distributed through Illyricum, for the civil war was still in progress and their fidelity 44could not be relied on.

They then dispatched couriers to carry the news to Britain and the Spanish provinces.

To Gaul they sent an officer named Julius Calenus, to Germany Alpinius Montanus, who had commanded an auxiliary cohort.

Montanus was a Treviran and Calenus an Aeduan; both had fought for Vitellius and thus served to advertise Vespasian’s victory.

At the same time garrisons were sent to hold the passes of the Alps, for fear that Germany might rise in support of Vitellius.

59 See ii.

21.

60 i.

e.

the band of Otho’s old Guards whom Vitellius had disbanded and Vespasian re-enlisted (see ii.

67, 82).

61 See chap.

5.

62 Caecina was under arrest, Valens still on his way from Rome (see chaps.

14, 15).

63 XXI and I.

64 Because they had already suffered heavy losses earlier in the day (see chap.

18).

65 These shields would have Vitellius’ name on them, and thus conceal their identity.

66 Dio asserts that the moon was ‘black and bloody, and gave off other fearsome hues’.

67 i.

e.

at the first battle of Bedriacum (see ii.

43).

68 See ii.

85.

69 36 b.

c.

70 a.

d.

63.

71 i.

e.

the Rhoxolani (cp.

i.

79).

72 They had served recently in Syria under Corbulo (see above).

73 An eyewitness (see note 39).

74 In Spain.

75 i.

e.

at the time of the first battle of Bedriacum in April.

76 i.

e.

the gate giving on to the road to Brescia.

77 In this famous formation the front-rank men kept close together and covered their bodies with long, concave shields, while the others, holding flat shields over their heads and pressing them one against another, formed a protecting roof.

They could thus approach the walls under cover.

78 Cp.

ii.

101, note 459.

79 For the term (cuneus) here used, see note on ii.

42.

80 Cp.

ii.

101, note 459.

81 See note 77.

82 As well as the buildings outside the walls.

83 i.

e.

tore them off the standards and shields, and broke the statues at head-quarters.

84 See chap.

14.

85 Cp.

i.

66.

86 Cp.

ii.

45.

87 i.

e.

even though it was in their own interest.

88 Cp.

ii.

70.

89 Cp.

ii.

67.

90 The words were either attributed wrongly to Antonius or were supposed to be spoken in answer to his question, ‘Are the furnaces not lit?’ In either case they were taken to apply not to the heating of the baths but to the burning of the town.

91 i.

e.

the goddess of malaria, who reigned in terror by the swampy banks of the Po.

92 Cremona was founded in 218 b.

c.

as a Latin colony, together with Placentia, to keep the Gallic tribes of North Italy in check.

93 The Po, Adda, and Oglio.

Vitellius 36When Caecina had left Rome,94 Vitellius, after an interval of a few days, sent Fabius Valens hurrying to the front, and then proceeded to drown his cares in self-indulgence.

He neither made any provision for the war, nor tried to increase the efficiency of his troops either by haranguing or by drilling them.

He did not keep himself in the public eye, but retired into the pleasant shade of his gardens, regarding past, present, and future with equal indifference, like one of those listless animals which lie sluggish, and torpid so long as you supply them with food.

While he thus loitered languid and indolent in the woods of Aricia,95 he received the startling news of Lucilius Bassus’ treachery and the disaffection of the fleet at Ravenna.

96 Soon afterwards he heard with mixed feelings of distress and satisfaction that Caecina had deserted him and had been imprisoned by the 45army.

On his insensate nature joy had more effect than trouble.

He returned in triumph to Rome and at a crowded meeting praised the devotion of the troops in extravagant terms.

He gave orders for the imprisonment of Publilius Sabinus, the prefect of the Guards, on the ground of his intimacy with Caecina, and appointed Alfenus Varus97 in his place.

37He next delivered a pompous and elaborate speech in the senate, where he was loaded with far-fetched compliments by the members.

Lucius Vitellius rose to propose a harsh sentence against Caecina.

The rest of the house inveighed with assumed indignation against the consul who had betrayed his country, the general who had betrayed his commander-in-chief, the friend who had betrayed his benefactor to whom he owed all his riches and distinction.

But their protestations of sympathy with Vitellius really voiced their personal vexation.

98 None of the speeches contained any criticism of the Flavian generals.

They threw the blame on the misguided and impolitic action of the armies, and with cautious circumlocution avoided all direct mention of Vespasian.

Caecina’s consulship99 had still one day to run, and Rosius Regulus actually made humble petition for this one day’s office, Vitellius’ offer and his acceptance exciting universal derision.

Thus he entered and abdicated his office on the same day, the last of October.

Men who were learned in constitutional history pointed out 46that no one before had ever been elected to fill a vacancy without the passing of a bill or some act of deprivation, although there was precedent for the one day consulship in the case of Caninius Rebilus when Caius Caesar was dictator and the civil war necessitated prompt rewards.

100 38It was at this time that the news of the death of Junius Blaesus101 gave rise to much talk.

I give the story as I find it.

When Vitellius was lying seriously ill at his house in the Servilian Park, he noticed that a neighbouring mansion was brilliantly illuminated at night.

On asking the reason, he was told that Caecina Tuscus102 was giving a large dinner-party, at which Junius Blaesus was the chief guest.

He further received an exaggerated account of their extravagance and dissipation.

Some of his informants even made specific charges against Tuscus and others, but especially accused Blaesus for spending his days in revelry while 47his emperor lay ill.

There are people who keep a sharp eye on every sign of an emperor’s displeasure.

They soon made sure that Vitellius was furious and that Blaesus’ ruin would be an easy task, so they cast Lucius Vitellius for the part of common informer.

He had a mean and jealous dislike for Blaesus, whose spotless reputation far outshone his own, which was tainted with every kind of infamy.

Bursting into the emperor’s apartment, he caught up Vitellius’ young son in his arms and fell at his feet.

When asked the reason of this excitement, he said it was due to no anxiety for himself; all his suit and all his prayers were for his brother and his brother’s children.

Their fears of Vespasian were idle: between him and Vitellius lay all the legions of Germany, all those brave and loyal provinces, and an immeasurable space of land and sea.

‘It is here in Rome,’ he cried, ‘in the bosom of our household that we have an enemy to fear, one who boasts the Junii and Antonii as his ancestors, one who shows himself affable and munificent to the troops, posing as a descendant of imperial stock.

103 It is to him that Rome’s attention turns, while you, Sire, careless who is friend or foe, cherish in your bosom a rival, who sits feasting at his table and watches his emperor in pain.

You must requite his unseasonable gaiety with a night of deadly sorrow, in which he 48may both know and feel that Vitellius lives and is his emperor, and, if anything should happen, has a son to be his heir.

‘ 39Vitellius hesitated anxiously between his criminal desires and his fear that, if he deferred Blaesus’ death, he might hasten his own ruin, or by giving official orders for it might raise a storm of indignation.

He decided to proceed by poison.

The suspicion against him he confirmed by going to see Blaesus and showing obvious satisfaction.

Moreover, he was heard to make the savage boast that he had, to quote his own words, ‘feasted his eyes on his enemy’s deathbed.

‘ Blaesus, besides his distinguished origin and refined character, was steadfastly loyal.

Even before the decline of Vitellius’ cause he had been canvassed by Caecina and other party leaders, who were turning against the emperor, and had met them with a persistent refusal.

He was a man of quiet and blameless life, with no ambition for the principate or, indeed, for any sudden distinction, but he could not escape the danger of being considered worthy of it.

40Meanwhile Fabius Valens, encumbered by a long train of harlots and eunuchs, was conducting a leisurely advance, most unlike a march to the front, when couriers arrived post-haste with the news that Lucilius Bassus had surrendered the Ravenna fleet.

104 If he had hurried forward on his march he might have been in time to save Caecina’s faltering loyalty, or to have joined the legions before the critical engagement was 49fought.

Many, indeed, advised him to avoid Ravenna and to make his way by obscure by-roads to Hostilia or Cremona.

Others wanted him to send to Rome for the Guards and to break through the enemy’s lines with a strong force.

Valens himself, with helpless indecision, let the time for action go by while he took advice; and then rejecting the advice he was offered, chose the middle course, which is always the worst in a crisis, and thus failed both in courage and in caution.

41He wrote to Vitellius demanding reinforcements, and there arrived three cohorts of Guards and a regiment of cavalry from Britain, too many to slip through unobserved and too few to force a passage.

But even in such a crisis as this Valens’ reputation was as unsavoury as ever.

He was still believed to use violence in the pursuit of illicit pleasures, and to betray the confidence of his hosts by seducing their wives and families.

He had money and authority to help him, and the feverish impatience of one whose star is on the wane.

At last the arrival of the reinforcements revealed the perversity of his strategy.

He had too few men to assume the offensive, even if they had been unquestionably loyal, and their loyalty was under grave suspicion.

However, their sense of decency and respect for the general restrained them for a while, though such ties are soon broken when troops are disinclined for danger and indifferent to disgrace.

105 Fearing trouble, he sent the Guards forward to50 Ariminum106 with the cavalry to secure the rear.

Valens himself, with a few companions, whose loyalty had survived misfortune, turned off into Umbria and thence to Etruria, where he learnt the result of the battle of Cremona.

Thereupon he formed a plan, which was far from cowardly and might have had alarming consequences, if it had succeeded.

He was to seize ships and cross to some point on the coast of Narbonnese Gaul, whence he could rouse the provinces of Gaul and the native German tribes, and thus raise forces for a fresh outbreak of war.

42Valens’ departure having dispirited the troops at Ariminum, Cornelius Fuscus107 advanced his force and, stationing Liburnian108 cruisers along the adjoining coast, invested the town by land and sea.

The Flavians thus occupied the Umbrian plain and the sea-board of Picenum; and the Apennines now divided Italy between Vitellius and Vespasian.

Valens, embarking from the Bay of Pisa, was either becalmed on a slow sea or caught by an unfavourable wind and had to put in at the harbour of Hercules Monoecus.

109 Stationed in the neighbourhood was Marius Maturus, the Governor of the Maritime Alps,110 who had remained loyal to Vitellius, and, though surrounded by enemies, had so far been faithful to his oath of allegiance.

He gave Valens a friendly welcome and strongly advised him not to venture rashly into Narbonnese Gaul.

This alarmed51 Valens, who found also that his companions’ loyalty was yielding to their fears.

43For Valerius Paulinus, the imperial agent in the province, was an energetic soldier who had been friendly with Vespasian in old days, and had lately sworn all the surrounding communities to his cause.

Having summoned to his flag all the Guards discharged by Vitellius,111 who needed no persuasion to resume the war, he was now holding the colony of Forum Julii,112 the key to the command of the sea.

His influence carried the more weight since Forum Julii was his native town and, having once been an officer in the Guards, he was respected by the men.

Besides this, the inhabitants supported their fellow citizen, and in the hope of future aggrandizement rendered enthusiastic service to the party.

When the news of these efficient preparations, somewhat exaggerated by rumour, came to the ears of the Vitellians, who were already in some doubt, Fabius Valens returned to the ships with four men of the Body Guard, three of his friends and three centurions, while Maturus and the rest preferred to remain and swear allegiance to Vespasian.

As for Valens, though he felt safer at sea than among the cities on the coast, he was still full of doubts for the future, since he was certain what he had to avoid but quite uncertain whom he could trust.

Eventually a gale drove him upon the Stoechades,113 some islands belonging to Marseilles, and there he was overtaken by the cruisers which Paulinus had sent in pursuit.

94 The story returns again to ii.

101.

95 La Riccia.

96 See chap.

12.

97 Hitherto camp-prefect (cp.

ii.

29).

98 Against Caecina for his inefficiency.

99 Cp.

i.

77.

100 This was in 45 b.

c.

, when Caesar was carrying on the government with a high hand and small regard for precedent.

Holding an election on the last day of the year, he was told that the consul was dead: there was no one to preside.

So he promptly announced that Caninius was consul till the next morning.

‘So no one,’ says Cicero, ‘breakfasted during his consulship.

However, there was no crime either, and his vigilance was such that he never closed an eye during his whole term of office.

‘ 101 Cp.

ii.

59.

102 This man had been prefect of Egypt, and had built special baths for Nero, who was expected to visit Alexandria.

But he committed the indiscretion of washing in them first, for which Nero had banished him.

103 Both the Junii and Antonii could claim as an ancestor Augustus’ sister Octavia; and the Junii were also connected with M.

Junius Silanus, Augustus’ great-great-grandson, whom Nero had put out of the way.

104 See chap.

12.

105 They had already incurred the disgrace of betraying first Galba, then Otho.

106 Rimini.

107 Now admiral of the Ravenna fleet (see chap.

12).

108 See ii.

16, note 247.

109 Monaco.

110 See ii.

12.

111 Cp.

ii.

67.

112 Fréjus.

113 Îles d’Hyères.

52 The State of the Provinces 44With the capture of Valens the tide had now fully turned in favour of Vespasian.

The movement had been begun in Spain by the First legion Adjutrix,114 whose reverence for Otho’s memory made them hate Vitellius.

They carried the Tenth and the Sixth115 with them.

The provinces of Gaul soon followed suit.

Britain was bound to his cause by the favour felt for one who had been sent there by Claudius in command of the Second legion, and had fought with great distinction in the war.

But the adherence of the province was to some extent opposed by the other legions, in which many of the centurions and soldiers had been promoted by Vitellius.

They were used to their emperor and felt some doubt about the change.

45This quarrel between the legions and the constant rumours of civil war, encouraged the Britons to take heart.

Their chief instigator was one Venutius.

He was of a ferocious disposition and hated the name of Rome, but his strongest motive was a private quarrel with Queen Cartimandua, a member of a powerful family, who ruled the Brigantes.

116 Her authority had lately increased, since she had betrayed King Caratacus into the hands of the Romans, and was thus considered to have provided Claudius Caesar with material for his triumph.

117 Thus she had grown rich, and with 53prosperity came demoralization.

She threw over Venutius, who was her husband, and gave her hand and kingdom to his squire, Vellocatus.

This crime soon proved the ruin of her house.

The people supported her husband: she defended her lover with passionate ferocity.

Venutius therefore summoned assistance and, aided by the simultaneous revolt of the Brigantes, brought Cartimandua into dire straits.

She petitioned for troops from Rome.

Our auxiliaries, both horse and foot, then fought several engagements with varying success, but eventually rescued the queen.

Thus the kingdom was left in the hands of Venutius and the war in ours.

46Almost simultaneously a disturbance broke out in Germany, where the inefficiency of the generals, the disaffection of the troops, the strength of the enemy, and the treachery of our allies all combined to bring the Roman government into serious danger.

The causes and history of this protracted struggle-for such it proved-we must leave to a later chapter.

118 Amongst the Dacians119 also there was trouble.

They could never be trusted, and now that the army was moved from Moesia they were no longer under the restraint of fear.

At first they remained quiet and awaited developments.

But when they saw Italy in the flames of war, and found the whole empire divided into hostile camps, 54they fell upon the winter-quarters of the auxiliary infantry and cavalry and began to occupy both banks of the Danube.

They were on the point of storming the Roman camp as well, when Mucianus, who knew of the victory at Cremona, sent the Sixth legion120 against them.

For the empire was in danger of a double foreign invasion, if the Dacians and the Germans had broken in from opposite directions.

But here, as so often, Rome’s good fortune saved her by bringing Mucianus on the scene with the forces of the East just at the moment when we had settled matters at Cremona.

Fonteius Agrippa, who had for the last year been pro-consul in Asia, was transferred to the government of Moesia.

His forces were strengthened by a draft from the defeated Vitellian army, for in the interest of peace it seemed prudent to distribute these troops over the provinces and to keep their hands tied by a foreign war.

47The other peoples soon made their voices heard.

Pontus121 had suddenly risen in a general rebellion at the instigation of a foreign menial, who was in command of what had once been the royal fleet.

He was one of Polemo’s freedmen, by name Anicetus, who had formerly been influential and resented the change which had converted the kingdom into a province of the Roman empire.

He accordingly enlisted the 55maritime tribes of Pontus in Vitellius’ service, attracting all the neediest ruffians with promises of plunder.

At the head of no mean force he suddenly fell upon Trapezus,122 an ancient and famous city, founded by Greek settlers on the frontier of the Pontic kingdom.

There he cut to pieces the auxiliaries, who had once formed the king’s Body Guard, and, after receiving the Roman franchise, had adopted our ensigns and equipment, while still retaining all the inefficiency and insubordination of Greek troops.

Anicetus also set fire to the fleet123 and thus enjoyed complete mastery of the sea, since Mucianus had moved the pick of his cruisers and all his troops to Byzantium.

The sea was overrun by natives too, who had hurriedly built themselves boats.

These, which they call ‘arks’,124 are broad-bottomed boats with low sides, built without any brass or iron rivets.

In a rough sea, as the waves rise higher and higher, the height of the sides is raised by the addition of planks which, in the end, enclose the whole boat under a sort of roof.

They are thus left to toss up and down on the waves.

They have bows at both ends and the paddles can be used on either side, since it is as easy and as safe to row in one direction as in the other.

48This state of things attracting Vespasian’s attention, he was obliged to send out a picked force of detach56ments from the legions under Virdius Geminus, a soldier of tried experience.

He attacked the enemy while they were dispersed in all directions in quest of plunder, and drove them back to their ships.

He then had some Liburnian cruisers hurriedly constructed and ran Anicetus to ground in the mouth of the river Chobus,125 where he had taken refuge with the King of the Sedochezi tribe, whose alliance he had purchased by bribes.

At first, indeed, the king endeavoured to protect his petitioner by using threats of violence, but he soon saw that it was a choice between making war or being paid for his treachery.

The barbarian’s sense of honour was unequal to this strain.

He came to terms, surrendered Anicetus and the other fugitives, and thus put an end to ‘the slaves’ war’.

This victory delighted Vespasian: everything was succeeding beyond his hopes: and to crown all the news of the battle of Cremona now reached him in Egypt.

He hurried forward all the faster towards Alexandria with the object of bringing starvation126 upon Vitellius’ defeated troops and the inhabitants of Rome, who were already feeling the pinch of diminished imports.

For he was at the same time making preparations for an invasion of the adjacent province of Africa127 by land and sea.

By cutting off their corn supply he hoped to reduce the enemy to famine and disunion.

114 The marines (see ii.

67, i.

6).

115 X Gemina, VI Victrix.

116 They occupied a large district of the north of England, from the Trent to the Tyne.

117 As a matter of fact his triumph took place in 44.

Caratacus was brought to Rome in 51.

Perhaps Tacitus regards this in itself as a ‘triumph’, or else he makes a venial mistake.

118 The rebellion on the Rhine is described in Books IV and V.

119 In Roumania.

120 Ferrata.

Cp.

ii.

83.

121 This little kingdom west of Trebizond was left to Rome by Polemo II, a.

d.

63.

Nero made it a Roman province under the name of Pontus Polemoniacus.

122 Trebizond.

123 Mucianus had ‘ordered the fleet to move from Pontus to Byzantium’ (ii.

83).

This leads some editors to change the text, and others to suppose that a few ships were left behind.

124 Literally, arched boats.

Tacitus describes somewhat similar craft in Germania, 44.

125 The Khopi, which flows from the Caucasus into the Euxine.

126 Cp.

chap.

8.

127 Africa came next to Egypt in importance as a Roman granary (cp.

i.

73).

57 Antonius’ Advance from Cremona 49Thus128 a world-wide convulsion marked the passing of the imperial power into new hands.

Meanwhile, after Cremona, the behaviour of Antonius Primus was not so blameless as before.

He had settled the war, he felt; the rest would be plain sailing.

Or, perhaps, in such a nature as his success only brought to light his greed and arrogance and all his other dormant vices.

While harrying Italy like a conquered country, he courted the goodwill of his troops and used every word and every action to pave his way to power.

He allowed his men to appoint centurions themselves in place of those who had fallen, and thus gave them a taste for insubordination; for their choice fell on the most turbulent spirits.

The generals no longer commanded the men, but were dragged at the heels of their caprices.

This revolutionary system, utterly fatal to good discipline, was exploited by Antonius for his own profit.

129 Of Mucianus’ approach he had no fears, and thus made a mistake even more fatal than despising Vespasian.

130 50His advance, however, continued.

As winter was at hand131 and the Po had inundated the meadows, his column marched unencumbered by heavy baggage.

58 The main body of the victorious legions was left behind at Verona, together with such of the soldiers as were incapacitated by wounds or old age, and many besides who were still in good condition.

Having already broken the back of the campaign, Antonius felt strong enough with his auxiliary horse and foot and some picked detachments from the legions.

The Eleventh132 had voluntarily joined the advance.

They had held back at first, but, seeing Antonius’ success, were distressed to think they had had no share in it.

The column was also accompanied by a force of six thousand Dalmatian troops, which had been recently raised.

The ex-consul, Pompeius Silvanus,133 commanded the column, but the actual control was in the hands of a general named Annius Bassus.

Silvanus was quite ineffective as a general, and wasted every chance of action in talking about it.

Bassus, while showing all due respect, managed him completely, and was always ready with quiet efficiency to do anything that had to be done.

Their force was further increased by enlisting the best of the marines from the Ravenna fleet, who were clamouring for service in the legions.

The vacancies in the fleet were filled by Dalmatians.

The army and its generals halted at Fanum Fortunae,134 still hesitating what policy to adopt, for they had heard that the Guards were on the move from Rome, and supposed that the Apennines were held by troops.

And they had fears of their own.

Supplies 59were scarce in a district devastated by war.

The men were mutinous and demanded ‘shoe-money’,135 as they called the donative, with alarming insistence.

No provision had been made either for money or for stores.

The precipitate greed of the soldiers made further difficulties, for they each looted what might have served for them all.

51I find among the best authorities evidence which shows how wickedly careless were the victorious army of all considerations of right and wrong.

They tell how a trooper professed that he had killed his brother in the last battle, and demanded a reward from his generals.

The dictates of humanity forbade them to remunerate such a murder, but in the interests of civil war they dared not punish it.

They had put him off with the plea that they could not at the moment reward his service adequately.

And there the story stops.

However, a similar crime had occurred in earlier civil wars.

In the battle which Pompeius Strabo fought against Cinna at the Janiculum,136 one of his soldiers killed his own brother and then, realizing what he had done, committed suicide.

This is recorded by Sisenna.

137 Our ancestors, it seems, had a livelier sense than we have both of the glory of good deeds 60and the shame of bad.

138 These and other such instances from past history may be appropriately cited, whenever the subject seems to demand either an example of good conduct or some consolation for a crime.

52Antonius and his fellow generals decided to send the cavalry ahead to explore the whole of Umbria, and to see whether any of the Apennines were accessible by a gentler route; to summon the eagles and standards139 and all the troops at Verona,140 and to fill the Po and the sea with provision ships.

Some of the generals continually suggested obstacles.

Antonius had grown too big for his place, and they had surer hopes of reward from Mucianus.

He was distressed that victory had come so soon, and felt that, if he was not present when Rome was taken, he would lose his share in the war and its glory.

So he kept on writing to Antonius and Varus in ambiguous terms, sometimes urging them to ‘press forward on their path’, sometimes expatiating on ‘the manifold value of delay’.

He thus managed to arrange that he could disclaim responsibility in case of a reverse, or acknowledge their policy as his own if it succeeded.

To Plotius Grypus, whom Vespasian had lately raised to senatorial rank and put in command of a legion, and to his other trusty friends he sent less ambiguous instructions, and they all wrote back criticizing the haste with which Antonius and Varus 61acted.

This was just what Mucianus wanted.

He forwarded the letters to Vespasian with the result that Antonius’ plans and exploits were not appreciated as highly as Antonius had hoped.

53This he took very ill and threw the blame on Mucianus, whose charges he conceived had cheapened his exploits.

Being little accustomed to control his tongue or to obey orders, he was most unguarded in his conversation and composed a letter to Vespasian in presumptuous language which ill befitted a subject, making various covert charges against Mucianus.

‘It was I,’ he wrote, ‘who brought the legions of Pannonia into the field:141 it was my stimulus which stirred up the officers in Moesia:142 it was by my persistence that we broke through the Alps, seized hold of Italy and cut off the German and Raetian auxiliaries.

143 When Vitellius’ legions were all scattered and disunited, it was I who flung the cavalry on them like a whirlwind, and then pressed home the attack with the infantry all day and all night.

That victory is my greatest achievement and it is entirely my own.

As for the mishap at Cremona, that was the fault of the war.

In old days the civil wars cost the country far more damage and involved the destruction of more than one town.

It is not with couriers and dispatches that I serve my master, but with my sword in my hand.

Nor can it be said that I have interfered with the glory of the men who have meanwhile settled 62matters in Dacia.

144 What peace in Moesia is to them, the safety and welfare of Italy are to me.

It was my encouragement which brought the provinces of Gaul and of Spain, the strongest parts of the whole world, over to Vespasian’s side.

But my labours will prove useless, if the reward for the dangers I have run is to fall to the man who was not there to share them.

‘ All this reached the ears of Mucianus and a serious quarrel resulted.

Antonius kept it up in a frank spirit of dislike, while Mucianus showed a cunning which was far more implacable.

128 The narrative is here resumed from the end of chap.

35.

129 Would-be centurions doubtless bribed him to influence the soldiers in their favour.

130 Vespasian was too big to mind being despised; Mucianus was not, and eventually retaliated (cp.

iv.

11).

131 November.

132 From Dalmatia (see ii.

11, 67).

133 Governor of Dalmatia (cp.

ii.

86).

134 Fano.

135 Apparently soldiers’ slang.

Probably at some period an officer had bribed his men under the pretence of making special grants for the purchase of nails for their shoes.

136 87 b.

c.

137 L.

Cornelius Sisenna, who died 67 b.

c.

in Pompey’s war against the pirates, wrote a history of his own time, dealing in particular with Sulla’s wars.

138 This or some similar incident seems to have become a respected commonplace of history and poetry (cp.

chap.

25).

139 i.

e.

the main body of the legions.

140 See chap.

50.

141 See ii.

86.

142 i.

e.

Aponius, Vipstanus Messala, Dillius, and Numisius (see ii.

85, iii.

9, 10).

143 Cp.

chap.

8.

144 i.

e.

Mucianus and his officers (see chap.

46).

Vitellius’ Measures of Defence 54After the crushing defeat at Cremona Vitellius stupidly suppressed the news of the disaster, thus postponing not the danger itself but only his precautions against it.

Had he admitted the facts and sought advice, hope and strength were still left to him: his pretension that all went well only made matters worse.

He was himself extraordinarily silent about the war, and in Rome all discussion of the subject was forbidden.

This only increased the number of people who, if permitted, would have told the truth, but in the face of this prohibition spread grossly exaggerated rumours.

Nor were the Flavian leaders slow to foster these rumours.

Whenever they captured Vitellian spies they escorted them round the camp to show them the strength of the winning army, and sent them back 63again.

Vitellius cross-examined each of them in private and then had them murdered.

A centurion named Julius Agrestis, after many interviews, in which he endeavoured in vain to fire Vitellius’ courage, at last with heroic persistence induced the emperor to send him to inspect the enemy’s forces and discover what had really happened at Cremona.

He made no attempt to deceive Antonius by concealing the object of his mission, but openly avowed the emperor’s instructions, stated his intentions and demanded to be shown everything.

He was given guides, who showed him the field of battle, the ruins of Cremona and the captured legions.

Back went Agrestis to Vitellius.

Finding that the emperor disbelieved his report and even suggested that he had been bribed, he said, ‘You want some certain evidence and, since you have no further use for me either alive or dead, I will give you evidence that you can believe.

‘ And he was as good as his word.

He went straight from the emperor’s presence and committed suicide.

Some say he was killed by order of Vitellius, but they give the same account of his heroic devotion.

145 55Vitellius was like a man roused from sleep.

He dispatched Julius Priscus and Alfenus Varus146 with fourteen cohorts of Guards and all his available cavalry to hold the Apennines.

A legion levied from 64the marines147 was sent after them.

This large army of picked men and horses, if there had been any general to lead it, was strong enough to have even taken the offensive.

His other cohorts148 were given to his brother, Lucius Vitellius, for the protection of the city.

The emperor himself gave up none of his habitual luxuries, but, feeling nervous and depressed, he hurried on the elections and nominated consuls for several years in advance.

He lavished special charters149 on allied communities and extended Latin rights150 to foreign towns: he remitted taxation here, granted immunities there.

In fact, he took no thought for the future, and did his best to cripple the empire.

However, the mob accepted these munificent grants with open mouths.

Fools paid money for them, but wise men held them invalid, since they could be neither given nor received without a revolution.

At last he yielded to the demands of the army and joined the camp at Mevania,151 where they had taken up their position.

A long train of senators followed him, many moved by their ambition, but most by their fears.

Here he 65was still undecided and at the mercy of treacherous advice.

56During one of his speeches a portent occurred.

A cloud of ill-omened birds152 flew over his head and its density obscured the daylight.

To this was added another omen of disaster.

A bull broke from the altar, scattered the utensils for the ceremony, and escaped so far away that it had to be killed instead of being sacrificed according to the proper ritual.

But the chief portent was Vitellius himself.

He was ignorant of soldiering, incapable of forethought: knew nothing of drill or scouting, or how far operations should be pressed forward or protracted.

He always had to ask some one else.

At every fresh piece of news his expression and gait betrayed his alarm.

And then he would get drunk.

At last he found camp life too tedious, and on learning of a mutiny in the fleet at Misenum153 he returned to Rome.

Every fresh blow terrified him, but of the real crisis he seemed insensible.

For it was open to him to cross the Apennines and with his full strength unimpaired to attack the enemy while they were worn out with cold and hunger.

But by breaking up his forces he sent his keenest soldiers, stubbornly loyal to the last, to be killed or taken prisoner.

The more experienced of his centurions disapproved of this policy and would have told him the truth, if they had been consulted.

But the emperor’s intimates refused 66them admittance.

He had, indeed, formed a habit of regarding wholesome advice as unpleasant, and refusing to listen to any that was not agreeable, and in the long run fatal.

57In civil war individual enterprise counts for much.

The mutiny of the fleet at Misenum had been engineered by Claudius Faventinus, a centurion whom Galba had dismissed in disgrace.

To obtain his object he had forged a letter from Vespasian promising rewards for treachery.

The admiral, Claudius Apollinaris,154 was neither a staunch loyalist nor an enthusiastic traitor.

Accordingly Apinius Tiro, an ex-praetor, who happened to be at Minturnae,155 offered to take the lead of the rebels.

They proceeded to win over the colonies and country towns.

Puteoli in particular was strong for Vespasian, while Capua remained loyal to Vitellius, for they dragged their local jealousies into the civil war.

To pacify the excited troops Vitellius chose Claudius Julianus, who had lately been in command of the fleet at Misenum and had allowed lax discipline.

To support him he was given one cohort of the city garrison and the force of gladiators already serving under him.

The two parties encamped close to one another, and it was not long before Julianus came over to Vespasian’s side.

They then joined forces and occupied Tarracina,156 which owed its strength more to 67its walls and situation than to the character of its new garrison.

58When news of this reached Vitellius, he left part of his force at Narnia157 with the prefects of the Guard,158 and sent his brother Lucius with six regiments of Guards and five hundred horse to cope with the threatened outbreak in Campania.

His own nervous depression was somewhat relieved by the enthusiasm of the troops and of the populace, who clamoured loudly for arms.

For he dignified this poor-spirited mob, which would never dare to do anything but shout, by the specious titles of ‘the army’ or ‘his legions’.

His friends were all untrustworthy in proportion to their eminence; but on the advice of his freedmen he held a levy for conscription and swore in all who gave their names.

As their numbers were too great, he gave the task of selection to the two consuls.

From each of the senators he levied a fixed number of slaves and a weight of silver.

The knights offered money and personal service, while even freedmen volunteered similar assistance.

Indeed, protestations of loyalty prompted by fear, had gradually changed into real sympathy.

People began to feel pity, not perhaps so much for Vitellius as for the throne and its misfortunes.

He himself by his looks, his voice, his tears made ceaseless demands upon their compassion, promising rewards lavishly and, as men do when they are frightened, beyond all limits.

He had hitherto 68refused the title of Caesar,159 but he now expressed a wish for it.

He had a superstitious respect for the name, and in moments of terror one listens as much to gossip as to sound advice.

However, while a rash and ill-conceived undertaking may prosper at the outset, in time it always begins to flag.

Gradually the senators and knights deserted him.

At first they hesitated and waited till his back was turned, but soon they ceased to care and openly showed their disrespect.

At last Vitellius grew ashamed of the failure of his efforts and excused them from the services which they refused to render.

145 This incident was probably another historical commonplace.

See the story from Plutarch (ii.

46, note 316), which is also told by Suetonius and Dio.

146 The prefects of the Guards (cp.

ii.

92).

147 At Misenum.

(Leg.

II Adjutrix.

) The Ravenna marines were on the Flavian side (see chap.

50).

148 i.

e.

the rest of the Guards (2), with the city garrison (4), and police (7) (cp.

ii.

93).

149 i.

e.

granting them special privileges denied to other communities in the same province.

150 A sort of ‘half-way house to Roman citizenship’.

Full commercial rights were included but not those of intermarriage.

It was possible for individual citizens in a Latin town to obtain the full rights of a Roman.

151 Bevagna.

152 Dio makes them vultures and the scene a sacrifice: they scattered the victims and nearly knocked Vitellius off his pulpit.